| ESRC
RESEARCH GROUP ON CARE, VALUES AND THE FUTURE OF WELFARE
University of Leeds
Sally
Hines, University of Leeds
Absent
Subjects: Feminist Discourse and Trans Masculinities
Please
do not quote without authors' permission
In
this paper I seek to explore the relationship between feminist
theory and trans masculinity. I will begin by noting how the
early silence within feminism around trans male identities,
shifted to a virulent denouncement during the 1980s and 1990s.
The paper moves on to explore plural forms of feminism, which
have begun to take a more diverse approach to gender and sexuality.
I suggest that this latter framework offers the potential
for opening up both a theoretical and an embodied place for
trans men within feminism. Finally, I address recent work
on trans masculinity and propose that feminist analyses of
gender and sexuality take account of work being developed
from within transgender studies.
My
key argument is that feminist theory proceeds to develop a
line of enquiry that is inclusive of the voices and experiences
of trans men. I will chart the ways in which feminist thought
and writing has related to trans masculinity from the 1970s
to the present day. To build my argument, the following theoretical
strands will be chronologically addressed; gay theory, radical
feminism, feminist analyses of sexuality, postmodern feminism
and queer theory, and transgender studies.
As
well as discussing these theoretical areas, I will also draw
on the initial findings of my own research with trans men
over the past nine months. Here I would like to point out
that my research is not purely concerned with male experiences,
nor only with the relationship between gender diversity and
feminism. Rather, this is the area that I choose to focus
upon in this paper, due to the relative absence of work that
addresses the relationship between feminist theory and trans
masculinity.
During
the 1970s British and American feminism applied the concept
of 'woman' as a fixed and essential category, which differentiated
against the particularities of 'man'. Gender diversity fell
beyond this binary framework and feminist writing was notably
silent in regard to transgender identities for most of this
decade. At this time however, gay historians and activists
were adopting an anthropological approach in their writing
and began to document what may now be seen to be examples
of early transgender practices. Research conducted in the
1960s and 1970s concentrated its gaze on non- western gender
diversity, which however, was largely interpreted as a personification
of homosexuality. Gender diverse cultures such as the berdache
tribe in North America were the focus of such studies, and
their members were perceived as gay men and lesbians rather
than as transgender men or women.
The
majority of this work focused upon the gender diverse identities
of genetic men. Katz (1976) was one of the few writers to
discuss the transgender experiences of born women. Paralleling
the fixing of a gay identity onto transgressive Native American
biological men, Katz labels gender - crossing born women 'lesbians'.
His discussion of 'passing women' between 1782 and 1920, portrays
trans men as lesbian feminists and problematically translates
a western experience onto a local culture:
The
women whose lives are documented here worked and dressed
and lived in what were customarily the occupations and
styles of men. Most actually passed as men; the evidencesuggests
they were also attracted to and had sexual and emotional relations
with other women. They both passed as men and passedbeyond
the restricted traditional roles of women…
Despite
their masculine masquerade, the females considered here can
be understood not as imitation men, but as real women, women
who refused to accept the traditional, socially assigned fate
;of their sex, women whose particular revolt took the form
of passing as men… these passing women can only be understood
within the framework
of a feminist analysis. (Katz, 1976, cited in Califia, 1997:
150)
At
this time gay theory was guided by the political motive of
affirming a visible history by countering the silence around
early gay and lesbian experiences. Further, it aimed to provide
a positive model by showing that, in contrast to western society,
gay men and lesbians in other cultures lived as equal and
established members of their communities. However understandable
these aims, such work has ignored the distinct histories of
gender diverse people by assimilating their identities into
a gay and lesbian, and feminist narrative.
The
publication of Janice Raymond's thesis The Transsexual
Empire in 1979 established a radical feminist perspective
on transgender which affected the dominant feminist position.
As Sandy Stone later remarked:
…
in 1991, on the twelfth anniversary of its publication,
it is still the definitive
statement on transsexualism by a genetic female academic.
(Stone,
1991: 283)
Raymond's
argument is concurrent with her biological determinist position,
through which sex is largely dependent upon chromosomes and
thus is fixed at birth. From this perspective gender is also
linked to biological sex. The 'transsexual empire' of her
title refers to the medical framework of doctors, surgeons
and psychiatrists, whom she holds responsible for 'producing
sex role stereotypes' (Raymond, 1979: 5). Although Raymond's
denouncement of trans women has been widely cited, her polemic
on trans men may be less well known. Raymond's premise that
transsexuality is a genetic male practice, created by a patriarchal
medical system to construct servile women, is disrupted by
the presence of trans men. In attempting to dig her self out
of this theoretical hole, Raymond locates trans men as a:
…token
to promote the deception that transsexualism is supposed
to
be a human problem, instead of a uniquely male problem'
(ibid:
xxi.)
Raymond
misses the point that past invisibility of trans men is a
direct consequence of the medical profession's negation of
trans masculinity, as illustrated by Stoller's assertion that
'…transvestism in women is so rare it is almost nonexistent'
(Stoller, 1982: 99).
While
Raymond theorises trans women as 'deviant males' (Raymond,
1979:10), trans men are located as treacherous women:
Female-
to-constructed-male transsexuals divest themselves of the
last traces of female identification. Their collusion crosses
a critical boundary, from which there is little hope of
return. They are truly
'the lost women to other women'.
(ibid,
xxv)
Sixteen
years after its publication The Transsexual Empire
was republished with a new forward by Raymond. The purpose
of this update seems to lie in Raymond's wish to address the
developing field of transgender studies. The decade and a
half between the publications witnessed great developments
both in relation to the lived experiences of trans people
and in terms of theoretical discourse, much of which was being
written by trans academics themselves. With particular reference
here was the increased visibility and activism of trans men
during this period. Raymond however, remains unmoved by such
developments and repeats her denouncement of trans men as
'the tokens that save face for the transsexual empire' (ibid).
In 1997 Sheila Jeffreys offered explicit support for Raymond's
position in her essay Transgender Activism: A Lesbian Feminist
Perspective (1997), which refuelled the radical feminist
attack on transgender. Jeffreys' key point of contention is
directed at trans men. She states that trans men are a 'modern
invention' (Jeffreys, 1997: 68), displaying a startling lack
of ahistoricism, which ignores past transitions, such as that
undertaken by Hermann Karl as early as 1882 (Cromwell, 1999:
98). Jeffreys however, warns that it is 'now imperative
for lesbian communities to pay attention' (ibid, my emphasis)
and continues:
The
spectacle of lesbians as freaks who really want to be men
has returned with renewed vigour from the sexological literature
of the 1950s to haunt popular women's magazines and lesbian
literature today. Since the identity of 'transsexual' seems
to be learned from such sources then we can expect a proliferation
of these very damaging practices amongst lesbians.
(ibid)
Much
of Jeffreys essay focuses upon autobiographical writing by
trans men. She shows how traditional accounts highlighted
bodily dissatisfaction, which she interprets as '…a hatred
of femaleness, not surprising in a womanhating culture' (ibid).
As she notes however, this element is less prominent in contemporary
male trans writing. Although Jeffreys seems to accept the
earlier narratives, which focused on negative body-image,
what seems to alarm her is the self determination of many
of today's trans men. Moreover, Jeffreys argues that these
positive stories actually work to encourage male trans practices.
Jeffreys cites Zachary Nataf's reflections on his pre-transition
identity as a butch dyke, described by Nataf as:
…a
very effective strategy for coping with my gender dysphoria
before I was able to believe that I could live as a transgendered
person… What had been missing for all those years was to
see representations of transgender people, especially FtMs,
and to hear their stories.
(Nataf:
1996: 26)
Jeffreys
reads Nataf through a simplistic causal framework by proposing
that Nataf would have continued to live as a lesbian had he
not come across the trans culture within which he writes.
The implication is that if the positive experiences of trans
men hadn't 'contaminated' Nataf, he would still be 'saved'
as a lesbian, all-be-it, as a 'problematic' butch.
- Feminist
Analyses of Sexuality
Jeffreys
call of caution to her radical feminist sisters however, may
have not been without currency. It was during the late 1980s
and 1990s that the divisive rhetoric of feminist separatism
can be seen to give way to a more considered enquiry into
the questions transgender raise for the non-trans who 'came
of age' during this politically high charged era. Here I am
not suggesting a collapse of transphobia within feminist writing.
As the previous discussion illustrates, anti-transgender sentiments
were strong within dominant strands of feminist thinking during
this time. It is beyond the scope of this paper to document
the diversity of feminist and lesbian movements that emerged
from the fractured women's movement in the late 1970s and
1980s. Suffice to say that by the late1980s it was more appropriate
to talk about a range of feminisms, than to discuss
a uniform body of feminist thought. Further, the alternative
sexualities initiated by lesbian sub-cultures of this time
were influential on the unfolding of feminist perspectives
that attempted to move away from the positioning of transgender
as suspect.
Feminist
thinking during the 1980s and 1990s became increasingly focused
upon sexuality and sexual practice. Initially heterosexuality
was the focus of discussion however, rather than ebbing into
a heterosexual/lesbian divide, debate was at its feistiest
in and amongst lesbian communities. As such, feminist concerns
over sexuality became dominated by fierce debates around lesbianism
and lesbian sexual practices, with the key protagonists being
radical feminists and lesbians associated with a range of
sexual subcultures. Radical feminists characterised lesbianism
as a political position which challenged the patriarchal institution
of heterosexuality, as demonstrated by Atkinson's mantra 'feminism
was the theory, lesbianism the practice' (quoted in Jackson
and Scott, 1996: 282). However, for other lesbians, emphasis
was firmly placed on erotic agency as illustrated by Califia's
sentiment:
Until
women own their own bodies and have the right to seek erotic
pleasure completely with no restrictions, women will not
be free.
(Califia,
in SOMOIS: 1987: 283)
The
data analysis of my own research is in its early stages however,
preliminary findings resonate here by showing how feminist
debates of the 1980s and 1990s cut through many contemporary
trans male narratives. In this way, many of the men I have
interviewed have articulated lived experiences of what has
become to be theorised as the 'sex wars'. Many have talked
about their involvement in feminist politics, though have
been precise in pointing out that they were not 'radical feminists'.
Likewise, many participants have related their former experiences
within lesbian communities, though have qualified this by
saying they identified as 'dyke' or 'queer', rather than as
'lesbian'. Several participants have talked about their involvement
during the 1980s and 1990s in alternative lesbian communities
and have explicitly discussed arguments with other feminists
and lesbians over issues such as image, access to community
spaces and censorship
While
not suggesting that trans men as a homogenous group have a
pre-transition identity as either feminists or lesbians, my
research has identified a recognisable theme of trans male
involvement in feminist and lesbian communities. While some
participants have discussed the hostile reactions of feminist
and lesbian friends as they came out, others have talked more
generally of 'moving on' in their lives and forming new friendships
networks. Several participants however have strongly articulated
an on-going personal and professional involvement in feminist
politics and lesbian communities, and continue to describe
their sexuality as queer. These participants have resolutely
argued for a link between transgender and gay and lesbian
political campaigns. My point is not to position trans men
as 'unhappy lesbians', nor to suggest an undercurrent of progressive
thought around transgender within dominant feminist and lesbian
politics. Rather, findings show that despite a dominant transphobic
rhetoric, many trans men were able to find a home, and indeed,
were often key players, within alternative feminist and lesbian
communities before, during and, in some cases, following,
transition.
Alongside
the lived experiences of queer communities, academic feminists
were also beginning to argue for a politics of diversity.
Moreover, many of these academics were writing as a direct
result of their involvement in queer subcultures. Hollibaugh
(1989) argued for a feminist theory of sexuality that embraces
difference. She proposed that alongside analysing sexuality
as an academic issue, feminism consider the lived embodied
experiences of sex in order to fully examine the diverse meanings
of sexual desire and practice.
Vance
(1989) proposed that a feminist politics of sexuality incorporate
the gendered meanings of embodiment by examining the ways
in which the body and particular sexual identities and practices
are socially and culturally constructed. For Vance, the remit
lay in theorising gender and sexuality as distinct though
overlapping categories. Importantly Vance highlighted the
necessity to recognise and include difference both in relation
to the meanings given to subcultural sexual symbols (for example,
images, practices or performances) and to understand that
such meanings are often different to dominant ways of seeing.
Like
Vance, Rubin (1989) identified feminism's fusion of gender
and sexuality as inherently problematic. Crucially for the
purpose of this paper, she drew attention to the ways in which
the influence of medicine, psychiatry and psychology have
encouraged a discourse which both individualises sexuality
and dislocates it from its historical and social significance.
Thus, following Foucault (1978) Rubin argued that sexuality,
as well as gender, is constructed through medical discourse,
which ascribes different meanings to the sexed body at particular
historical moments.
Although
these writers do not specifically address transgender, their
work provides a framework for a more nuanced understanding
of trans identities, where erotic desire does not automatically
fit preconceived binaries of either gender (man/woman) or
sexuality (homo/hetero). Additionally, this perspective enables
the consideration of a range of transgender identities both
in relation to dominant culture and to each other. In turn,
this allows us to go beyond the prevailing notion of trans
people as a homogenous group and provides room for the recognition
of distinct trans identities.
- Postmodern
Feminism and Queer Theory
The
influence of postmodernism and queer theory upon some feminist
writing during the 1990s led to a more explicit engagement
with transgender. These approaches have emphasised difference
and, rather than following an assimilative route, have theorised
difference as politically progressive. Those who argue for
a feminist engagement with postmodernism, view the analysis
of difference as a requisite theoretical tool for the development
of feminist theory. For example, Wright states that:
Postmodernist
theory provides feminism with an additional
framework, enabling it to articulate the diversity and contradictions
that spring up not only between various positions
but also within various positions.
(Wright,
1997: 179, my emphasis)
Again,
this model allows us to move beyond the concept of a unitary
trans identity and to recognise that difference cuts across
a diversity of transgender subjectivities. As such, this framework
may be utilized to enable the increased visibility of trans
men, not only through analysing the specificities of trans
male experiences in relation to trans female, but also by
exploring particular subject positions within trans masculinity.
Queer
theory has argued against the notion of 'authentic' gender
or sexual identities and thus carves a space for the theorisation
of trans identities and sexualities. For example, queer theorists
have argued that traditional lesbian and gay theory and politics
have been exclusive in their attitudes towards those whose
identities fall outside of that which is deemed to be 'correct'
or 'fitting'. Confronting the construction of 'normal' sexualities
has also meant challenging the notion of heterosexuality as
'natural', or as Stephen Whittle puts it; '…the hegemonic
centrism of heterosexism…is being challenged to justify itself
or to 'get out of the kitchen' (Whittle, 1997: 202). Queer
theory then, views all gendered and sexual identities as socially
constructed, and aims to dissolve the naturalisation and pathologising
of perceived minority identities. Thus, both postmodern feminism
and queer theory have celebrated transgender as a site which
radically challenges the binary systems of gender and sexuality.
Such
accounts however, can be critiqued for negating the material
experiences of transgender. In this way, MacDonald (1998)
argues that postmodernism's assimilation of transgender has
a tendency to ignore the specific subject positions under
analysis:
In
its promotion of transgender identity as a transcendence
of identity, postmodern theory assimilates transgender to
its own intellectual project through presenting transgendered
experiences as play, performance or strategy. It does so
at the expense of investigating the actual lives, political
demands, or feelings expressed by transgendered people
of having an identity that is often experienced as "authentic"
or "integral"
and that it is considered to be neither "chosen"
originally nor "performed" strategically.
(MacDonald,
1998:4)
Judith
Butler's seminal text Gender Trouble (1990) marks feminism's
influence upon queer theory. Here, Butler examines how a binary
gender model has restricted feminist understandings of sex
and gender. She argues that the ways in which feminists, and
social scientists in general, have understood 'sex' as constituting
the biological male or female body, and 'gender' as referring
to the social meanings attached to such bodies, has disabled
a more effective understanding of gender as distinct from
sex. Butler believes that an understanding of gender as separate
from sex holds the potential for a greater diversity of masculinities
and femininities.
When
the constructed status of gender is theorized as radically
independent of sex, gender itself becomes a free- floating
artifice, with the consequence that man and masculine
might just as easily signify a female body as a male
one, and woman and feminine a male body as
easily as a female one.
(Butler,
1999:6)
Further,
Butler argues that we should be wary of seeing 'sex' as a
purely biological characteristic. Rather, sex is as socially
and culturally a determined concept as is gender. Butler's
ideas, alongside Rubin's, can be incorporated into a contemporary
understanding of transgender that accepts a multiplicity of
gendered identities and representations, which are unfixed
to the sexed body
Rather
than privileging the body as the site of sex, Butler
employs the body as a tool through which gendered acts acquire
their social and cultural meanings. From this understanding,
gender acquires its meanings through repetition, which Butler
discusses in relation to gender performativity. Here, drag
and lesbian butch/femme identities are cited as key examples
of gender performativity.
From
a perspective which views all gender and sexual identities
as socially constructed, transgender identities may appear
no less irregular than those of genetic men or women. Likewise,
trans male identities may be articulated alongside those of
trans women. However, Butler's focus on performance related
trans identities unwittingly privileges certain identities
above others. Thus whilst Butler's analysis may be successfully
utilized for performance related identities, such as the drag
king or queen, it falls short of incorporating trans identities
which are less vocal or visible. In this way Jay Prosser (1998)
argues that Butler presents a selective reading of transgender.
Prosser's key contention with queer theory is that it has
bypassed the importance of embodiment and as such, negates
material trans narratives. Consequently, Prosser cautions
against the 'universalizing of trans' (ibid: 5).
Queer
theory then, offers valuable insights into the ways in which
some trans cultures radically challenge traditional
gender and sexual binary categories and, as such, provides
a useful vision of deconstructed genders and sexualities.
However, used in isolation, this theoretical model is limited
through its tendency to negate the lived experiences of individuals
and render non-performance-orientated trans identities unaccountable.
Within
the recent field of transgender studies, trans writers have
articulated their own stories and have engaged with the theoretical
debates of feminism, postmodernism and queer theory, as well
as providing an explicit critique of medical discourse. Transgender
studies explores the different meanings brought to the term
transgender and reflects a diversity of theoretical positions.
Hence much debate within transgender studies has been concerned
with addressing the contradictions between deconstructive
analyses of transgender and the representations of integral
identities which are articulated in many transgender autobiographies.
The discord between deconstructive and corporal understandings
of gender have long been central to feminist thought and as
Heyes (2000) has remarked, illustrate the connecting themes
of transgender studies and women's studies.
In
Female Masculinity Judith Halberstam (1998) illustrates
how until recently trans men were barely recognised by medical
discourse and were marginalised within social and psychoanalytic
accounts of transgender practices. Importantly for this paper,
Halberstam illustrates the ways in which many trans identities
and practices overlap with those of other gender and sexual
subcultures, as has been indicated by my research findings.
Zachary
Nataf in Lesbians Talk Transgender (1996) and Leslie
Feinberg in Transgender Warriors (1996), employ a postmodern
mix of historical and critical analysis, political critique
and autobiography to articulate a range of trans male gender
and sexual identities. Although Nataf explores gender as a
performative concept, she does so by drawing on a range of
lesbian subjective experiences in relation to the expression
and interpretation of gender. In Feinberg's book, the author
is placed at the centre of the narrative and the analytical
investigation of trans histories frequently traverses with
Feinberg's personal gender history. Feinberg's later book
Trans Liberation: Beyond Pink or Blue (1998) vocalises
a diversity of trans gender and sexual identities, and calls
for a inclusive trans politics, which is able to dually celebrate
and specify difference. Further, Feinberg importantly incorporates
the variables of age, class and ethnicity, as well as gender
and sexuality, into the discussion of trans identities and
subjectivities.
This
latter selection of work draws on postmodern deconstructions
of binary gender categories and reflects queer theory's celebration
of difference. Importantly, Nataf and Feinberg's articulation
of subjective trans experiences illustrate how these theoretical
areas may be used without the loss of subjectivity. At the
heart of the developing field of transgender studies we find
divergent and contesting meanings of gendered and sexual,
social and embodied, identities. To feminism, transgender
studies offers the renewed challenge of theorising diversity
and tolerating difference. To postmodern and queer theory,
transgender studies articulates the importance of a grounded
theory, that not only celebrates the deconstruction of existing
gender and sexual categories, but which also pays close attention
to the actual voices and lived experiences of difference.
From this juncture, I follow Heyes' argument that 'it's no
longer enough… for feminist readers to dismiss the projects
of trans theorists and activists as epiphenomenal to feminist
discourse or even queer theory, or to view trans studies as
an optional extra in the studies of sex and gender' (Heyes,
2000: 170).
Writing
about the invisibility of trans men within feminist theory,
Jason Cromwell argues that:
Female
- to male transpeople constitute a prime subject for feminist
thought and methods, if for no reason than being born biologically
female or assigned at birth as female. Feminists should
be concerned that male - dominated discourses have made
female - to - male transpeople virtually invisible.
(Cromwell,
1999: 9)
From
my research findings I would also add that trans men are primary
feminist subjects because many identify as feminists.
Thus, in a dominant culture which stresses post-feminism,
we can hear feminist ethics being strongly reiterated by many
trans men. In talking about identity, community, values and
relationships, all of the men I spoke with articulate masculinities
that are distinct from traditional notions of male power or
privilege. Their experiences of masculinity have often been
discussed from a feminist perspective in relation to interactions
with genetic men or relationships with women. Here a central
theme expressed has been the wish to stand aside of hegemonic
masculinity, or in other words, not to behave or be seen as
'typical' men. While it is important to live and be perceived
as male, a key area of concern raised has been to live and
be understood as different men. In conclusion then,
I emphasise that it is imperative that contemporary feminist
analyses of gender and sexuality take account of the voices
of these 'new men'.
Notes
1
Research is being completed under a CAVA studentship, for
a PhD, the title of which is 'Transgender Identities, Relationships
and Practices of Care'. The title reflects the three central
themes of research. Firstly in relationship to 'identities',
I aim to explore the diversity of both subjective and theoretical
meanings brought to the term 'transgender', in terms of
individual and collective, gender and sexual identities.
Secondly, the theme of 'relationships' addresses the meanings
of intimacy in relation to sexual, friendship and familial
relationships. The final theme of 'practices of care' encompasses
both 'formal' (medical and psychological) practices of care
and 'informal' (friendship networks, familial care, transgender
support /self-help groups) and explores areas of overlap
and contest between.
2 The
positioning of non-western practices of gender diversity as
being synonymous with transgender or transsexual practices
is contested. As Williams (1986) notes, 'transgender' and
'transsexual' are western concepts, which are limited in their
accuracy when discussing indigenous forms of gender diversity,
which are culturally specific.
3 For
example of writers who locate the berdache as gay men see
Roscoe, W. (ed.) (1988) Living the Spirit: A Gay Indian
Anthology, New York, St. Martin's Press and Williams,
W. (1986) The Spirit and the Flesh: Sexuality Diversity
in American Indian Culture, Boston, Beacon Press.
4 For
examples of historical analysis of the medicalisation of sexuality
see Foucault, M. (1979) The History of Sexuality, London,
Allen Lane, Weeks, J. (1981) Sex, Politics and Society,
Essex, Longmans and Ekins, R. & King, D. (eds.) (1996)
Blending Genders: Social Aspects of Cross - Dressing and
Sex - Changing, London, Routledge.
5 See
Jackson & Scott (1996) for a detailed discussion of feminist
debates around sexuality from the 1970s to the present.
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