Introduction

 

…information literacy is the zeitgeist of the times…an idea whose time has at long last come. It is consonant with the reform agendas in government, in communications technology and in education…with employers’ demands for an adaptable and responsive workforce. It is increasingly multidisciplinary and must be included across the curriculum at whatever level of education or training we are involved in. And finally it is consistent with the notion of lifelong learning and the fact that the only constant is change.

(Candy, 1996)

A key challenge of the information age is the need to develop an information literate population. One of the most comprehensive ways of achieving this is through the educational system. Information skills is embedded within the primary and secondary curriculum, but there is a need to develop a strategic and coherent approach to student training within the UK higher and Post- 16 education sectors. This imbalance needs to be redressed if the opportunities inherent in an information society are to be fully exploited. Any attempt to tackle this situation should take into account the individual needs of students and their employers, both now and in the future.

Information skills have become increasingly important due to the sheer volume of information which is now produced and disseminated every day. Society needs to be equipped with the skills to locate, access, evaluate and act on all the information received. It also needs to be able to use these skills in a variety of environments, such as at work, at home and for leisure. As the SCONUL Task Force on Information Skills (1999) has highlighted, there is a heavy reliance by students on the internet to provide information. In order to do this successfully they need to be able to "address questions relating to the provenance, accuracy and reliability of the material, which are largely unnecessary in established areas of academic publishing…With the internet sources, none of the quality assurance mechanisms can be assumed. The onus is on the user to apply a critical faculty". Furthermore, as the Task Force report points out, the increased ease of accessibility and use of information can hide differences in information generation and supply. Ethical questions also need to be considered in respect of copyright, intellectual property and plagiarism. Although this example refers to the experience of those in the education sector it can easily be transferred to any aspect of modern life and the same difficulties and challenges will apply.

Information skills are an important element in the concept of lifelong learning, which extends beyond the realm of the formal education system. Lifelong learning can be defined as "a deliberate progression throughout the life of an individual, where the initial acquisition of knowledge and skills is reviewed and upgraded continuously, to meet challenges set by an ever changing society." (Brophy 1998). This idea is becoming more important, for example, as the workforce is required to re-skill in the face of developing technologies and so ensure their future employability. Throughout the literature the link between lifelong learning and information literacy is made and reiterated.

This review will focus firstly on some key terms and definitions, highlighting their usage in the United States and Australia, which favour ‘information literacy’ and the United Kingdom which tends towards ‘information skills’. It will then go on to examine some of the key characteristics which have been drawn up to describe an information literate person. Education is seen as being key in establishing an information literate population, and although it is in this specific area which this literature review is most interested some consideration will also be given to other aspects of information literacy such as the social, political and economic dimensions of the subject.

An overview of the current state of information literacy research and programmes in the US, Australia, and Europe is given, and this provides a useful starting point for the assessment of information skills training in the UK. A more comprehensive examination of the current UK position and experience follows.

Key terms: Information literacy or information skills?

What is striking in the literature is that the term ‘information literacy’ predominates in the American and Australian context, whereas in the UK the most commonly used term is ‘information skills’. The adoption of ‘information literacy’ may stem from the fact that this was the first term to be used, as early as 1974. There seems to be no discernible reason for this difference in terminology, and nor does there seem to be any real difference in meaning between the two; however, the possession of particular skills is implicit in all definitions of information literacy. Writers such as Kaulthau and Rader use both terms interchangeably. A leading proponent of information literacy in Australia, Bruce (1997) does seem to imply that information literacy is better or more advanced than the idea of information skills, but the lack of any clear definition of the latter means it is not possible to comment on the veracity of this.

Other authors have developed the idea of information literacy further, and suggest that "information literacy is not sufficient. Today, students must be able to demonstrate information competency". (Goetsch and Kaufman, 1998). Rader (1999b) considers the concept of information fluency. Wilson (1998) introduces the idea of digital literacy. Hepworth (1999) approaches the problem of terminology by combining the two key terms and uses the phrase "information literacy and skills". In reality, however none of these terms is substantively different from another and their use should not serve to confuse rather than add to the debate. For the purposes of this review the term information literacy has been used where it appears as such in the literature, otherwise the term information skills is preferred.

Definitions and characteristics

Many different definitions of information literacy have been suggested. Most definitions include some correlated set of characteristics which describe the attributes of an information literate person. As Webber (2000) states, the definitions put forward tend to include the following elements:

Effective information seeking;

Informed choice of information sources;

Information evaluation and selection;

Comfort in using a range of media to best advantage;

Awareness of issues to do with bias and reliability of information; and

Effectiveness in transmitting information to others.

Although there is no overall consensus on a definitive definition of ‘information literacy’, perhaps one of the most widely quoted is that of the American Library Association (ALA) Presidential Committee on Information Literacy which in its 1989 report stated:

To be information literate, a person must be able to recognize when information is needed and have the ability to locate, evaluate, and use effectively the needed information. Ultimately, information literate people are those who have learned how to learn. They know how to learn because they know how knowledge is organized, how to find information, and how to use information in such a way that others can learn from them. They are people prepared for lifelong learning, because they can always find the information needed for any task or decision at hand.

This definition highlights the interconnection between information literacy and lifelong learning. The context within which this definition appears states that information literacy is not only important in the sphere of formal education but to society as a whole, so that a responsible and informed citizenry can be created.

Another useful definition, is provided by Doyle who states that: "Information literacy is the ability to access, evaluate and use information from a variety of sources". (cited in Bruce, 1995)

There are some who question the validity of information literacy as a concept and subject for debate. Foster (1993) breaks down the ALA definition, cited above, and suggests that the elements contained within it are useless. For example, in relation to the point of knowing how knowledge is organised Foster refutes the possibility of this on three fronts. Firstly, knowledge is so vast and dynamic that it is not possible to have more that an rudimentary grasp of its organisation; secondly, knowledge can be organised in many different ways; and finally, organisational schemes are arbitrary and depend on the purposes and perspective of the organiser. Snavely and Cooper (1997) also review some of the problems and criticisms related to the information literacy debate. They feel that the objections made can be put into two categories, the term itself and definitions of information literacy. They consider the use of different terms but conclude that information literacy is acceptable providing that there is a clear understanding that it refers to something new and different and "should not be instruction with another name". The literature does indeed reflect that information literacy connotes something more than basic library instruction.

Any definition is likely to have its critics and supporters. Whilst it is useful to be aware that there is a range of definitions available, as with the question of terminology, the lack of a definitive, universally accepted definition of information literacy or information skills should not be allowed to get in the way of our understanding of this subject. Essentially, there is common agreement that individuals must be able to utilise a range of skills in order to deserve the epithet of information literate. It is the acquisition of information skills which leads to people becoming information literate or information competent.

Much of the literature deals with the characteristics or competencies that must be displayed in order for an individual to be considered to be information literate. Again, although these tend to vary from author to author there is general agreement that they should encompass skills such as "computing, technical, media, information, evaluation, organizational, and problem solving skills". (Rader, 1999b)

The Association of College and Research Libraries (ACRL, 2000, http://www.ala.org/acrl/ilstandardlo.html visited 13/12/2000)has done a great deal of work in drawing up competency standards for those engaged in higher education, including performance indicators and outcomes for those who successfully achieve the standard. These provide a good overview of the characteristics required of an information literate person and generally encompass the features described by other authors in this field. In October 2000 these standards were adopted, with two additions, by the Council of Australian University Librarians (CAUL, http://www.caul.edu.au/caul-doc/InfoLitStandards2001.doc visited 1/06/2001)

 

United States

The US is credited with having well developed approaches and strategies towards information skills training. The concept of information literacy was first identified in 1974 in a report from the Information Industry Association (IIA) to the National Commission on Libraries and Information Science. The first work-based considerations of information literacy were influenced by developments in technology and their application to the storage, manipulation and dissemination of information. Initial interpretations of the term are biased towards what would now be referred to as computer literacy, with particular emphasis on the ability to use ‘information tools’. (Behrens, 1994) Although it was initially related specifically to the workplace the scope of the information literacy concept was widened by other authors; for example, Owens, in 1976, included democratic processes and highlighted the need for information for the electorate to be able to make informed decisions when voting. In 1979 the IIA dropped the workplace specification in its definition of information literacy. In more modern day interpretations there is widespread acceptance that information literacy encompasses more than this. As Khaultahu (1990) says "information skills combine a broader view of library skills with computer skills to develop competencies for the information age".

Early recognition of the implications of the information age, and the challenges to be faced in successfully exploiting the new opportunities this presented, contributed to the US,focusing efforts on the development of coherent strategies for information skills training for students. It is not clear from the literature why the initial recognition of the importance of information literacy should have been concentrated and developed in the US. The changes which heralded the shift in the relative economic importance of information away from manufacturing, categorised as de-industrialisation, are not a phenomenon unique to the US. However, it is likely that reports, such as that of the IIA, caught the imagination of a range of other people and organisations, and acted as a catalyst for further thinking and action in this area. According to Behrens (1994) there was a recognition that information was ‘essential to society’ in the US in the 1970s. This, coupled with educational reform in the 1980s, fuelled by a number of reports such as ‘A Nation at Risk’, had the effect of making librarians reassess their role in the learning process and has led to their embracing the idea of information literacy. This is a trend which has continued since.

It should be stated that much of the discussion about information literacy has been confined to the library and information sectors. However, more recent developments outside the sphere of libraries have precipitated the recognition of the need for an information literate population. Rader (1999a) concurs that the need for information skills training in the United States has not necessarily been recognised as a result of the efforts of information and library staff. She suggests that outside pressure is being brought to bear so that changes in higher education reflect the changes that are taking place within society as a whole. Goetsch and Kaufman (1998) consider that it is more likely to be as a result of widening access to the World Wide Web.

There is common agreement that the role of the library service in information skills training must go beyond that of just bibliographic instruction (Roth, 1999) especially in the electronic information era. (Lawson, 1999). It is from this traditional role that library staff are now best equipped to deliver training to users. However, it is widely accepted within the literature that to integrate information skills training successfully into the curriculum, a joint effort will need to be made by librarians, computing, pedagogy and academic staff. (Bruce, 1995) "Teaching information skills will be the expertise which librarians bring to the partnership". (Rader, 1999a)

Information skills training will only be successful if there is a change in the way that teaching is carried out. It is not sufficient to have a separate information skills module offered as part of the existing curriculum. The ALA states that "What is called for is not a new information studies curriculum, but rather, a restructuring of the learning process". (Dupuis, 1997) Students will not benefit from being taught skills in isolation. In order for information skills to be developed there needs to be a shift to resource-based learning, and to make the acquisition of skills more meaningful by setting them in their proper context. It is only by enabling students to apply their skills to real problems and work related projects that they will successfully develop a range of transferable skills. This is known in the literature as the ‘curriculum integration model’. (Goetsch and Kaufman, 1998; Bruce 1995, 1999).

It is also important that information skills training be rooted in a relevant context. As Fjallbrant (2000) points out "The actual context or task strongly influences search behaviour and may well influence the learner’s perception of information literacy." There must also be a recognition that what is appropriate for solving one particular problem or need is not necessarily the best strategy for another or different type. Also, some strategies or resources will be more appropriate at different stages of a particular search than others but again these may evolve as the process progresses.

Information literacy programmes also provide a potential means for library and teaching staff to engage in continuing professional development. (Fjallbrant, 2000; Bruce, 1995;1997) In recognition of this, the ALA has established and funds the Information Literacy Institute (http://www.ala.org/acrl/nili/nilihp.html). This, in part, provides staff development programmes for training librarians to become information literacy teachers.

Much of the recent literature on this subject has been concerned with the development and implementation of information literacy initiatives within educational programmes, and the difficulties encountered in this process. (Dupuis,1997; Lawson,1999; MacAdam,1990) However, only a handful of successful programmes can be identified and tend to be concentrated in small institutions. (Goetsch and Kaufman,1998) This is perhaps predictable given that co-operation across disciplines is needed to ensure the success of programmes, and this may be more difficult to achieve in larger or multi-site institutions. There is also a need for a standard against which the success of programmes can be measured. The ALA has devised a set of standards which have been adopted not only in the US, but as noted before in Australia too.

For information skills training to be successful there also needs to be a change in the attitude of students. Those who are only interested in doing the minimum required to pass a course are not going to see the value of skills that will enable them to become lifelong learners. (Bruce, 1995) Making courses compulsory or awarding credits for information skills courses may benefit students in the long term. However, MacDonald, Rathemacher and Burkhardt (2000) found that not all students see the value of an information skills programmes, particularly if they feel that they have been forced to ‘participate’ or if only a low number of credits are offered for the course.

Todd (2000) analysed the information seeking skills of various groups of students using the World Wide Web. Although there is an assumption that young people are able to use these resources, the reality is that they are not. Some programmes that have been developed include pre- and post- course testing of skills and all report an improvement in student performance following the completion of an information skills module. (Lawson, 1999; Macdonald et al, 2000)

Australia

As has been noted a great deal of work has been carried out in the field of information literacy in Australia and its integration into higher education programmes. Several significant reports are responsible for this. (Bundy, 2001) It is important to note that these reports have not only highlighted the need for information literacy for educational purposes but again, its application in the workplace and for the good of society as a whole.

The first of the reports mentioned above, the Ross Report ,was commissioned in 1989, the same year as the ALAs Presidential Committee on Information Literacy published its influential final report. The terms of reference for this included "the role of higher education libraries in preparing those training for the professions in information literacy". The Government’s input into the debate was outlined in the 1991 report "Australia as an Information Society", which highlighted the education system as a means of establishing an information literate population but which would require a more co-ordinated approach at all levels and particularly at the higher level. The need to introduce information skills as distinct from computer skills was also recognised.

In 1992 The Higher Education Council published its report "Achieving quality of higher education", which established the characteristics all graduates should display. These generic skills included "critical thinking, intellectual curiosity, problem solving, logical and independent thought, effective communication and related skills in identifying, accessing and managing information".

Bruce (1994), has developed a theoretical approach to the subject. Some of her earlier work in defining the characteristics of an information literate person has been developed into the model ‘Seven Faces of Information Literacy’. This is relational model which shows the varying degrees of interaction between users and information, within seven different categories. The emphasis on the experiences of users provides an alternative approach to the question of information literacy, which is normally seen from the view of information skills providers. Bruce applies this model not only to educational contexts (1997) but also to the workplace (1999). The application of information skills beyond the educational sphere has also been considered by a number of authors including Abell (2000), Mutch, (1997) and Kanter (1996). Bruce’s model can also be applied to the development of education and training programmes and to community settings. (1999; 2000) The wider applications of this model serve to highlight that information skills training is not just the preserve of the academic institution but is a necessary attribute for all who want to participate fully and successfully in the information society

Since the mid 1990s, information literacy strategies have been integrated into the institutional plans at many Australian universities. A report entitled ‘Developing Lifelong Learners Through Undergraduate Education’ identified information literacy as one of four essential elements of the undergraduate curriculum. (Bruce, 1995)

Again, the need for the wider application of information literacy to the workplace and society as a whole was made so that graduates would be able to "function both as a competent professional, and as a member of the community. It is important, therefore, that graduates leave university equipped with the skills and strategies to locate, access, retrieve, evaluate, manage and make use of information in a variety of fields, rather than with a finite body of knowledge that will soon be outdated and irrelevant." (Bundy, 2001) This report again links the concept of information literacy with that of lifelong learning. Overall, the Australian experience in the adoption of information literacy plans within educational institutions seems to have been more successful and coherent than that of the US. This may be due in part to the fact that the number if not the size of Australian higher education institutions makes it a more manageable prospect.

The Australian Library and Information Association (ALIA, http://www.alia.org.au/sigs/infolit/statement.html) has also attached importance to the idea of information literacy. They see it as a prerequisite for

Again, the wider applications of information literacy are reiterated and the personal and public benefits are applied, not only to society in the Australian context but also to the wider global society. It is seen that librarians and information services professionals share and "embrace a responsibility to develop the information literacy of their clients". This involvement in the promotion of information literacy applies to staff across all sectors, not just to the academic or public libraries. There is a recognition that there must be a far-reaching, comprehensive approach to the responsibility of all those in the partnership of establishing information literacy in the twenty-first century. The fact that ALIA have published this statement also shows their commitment to ensuring that librarians and information service staff are able to assert their right and ability to take part in the information literacy process.

As has been noted previously, in October 2000 CAUL adopted, with the addition of two new standards, the information literacy standards from the ACRL. This is the latest in a long line of initiatives which have firmly embedded the idea of information literacy in to the culture of higher education in Australia. This and the other developments by bodies such as the ALIA serve as an illustration of the similarities between the United States and Australia in their experiences of establishing and encouraging an information literate population, both within the educational sector and beyond.

Europe

Some important work in the field of information literacy has also been carried out in Europe. Of particular note are the EDUCATE (End User Courses in Information Access through Communication technology) and DEDICATE (Distance Education Information Courses with Access through Networks) projects funded by the European Union and involving collaboration between a number of partner institutions, outlined by Fjallbrant (2000). EDUCATE ran between 1994 and 1997 was concerned with ‘subject-related aspects of information literacy for scientists and engineers, and aimed to develop a on line course "in the selection and use of information tools". This led to the development of a series of "INTO INFO" programmes which "provided a means for learning about, and accessing, relevant information sources". This material could be used in a number of settings including for self-directed learning or as part of a formal course about information literacy. The DEDICATE project was one of a number of projects developed out of EDUCATE and was aimed at developing distance learning courses in ‘Training for information literacy’. The target training recipients were librarians and academic staff. Training in this networked context particularly requires good user support. Again, as has been highlighted in the American experience, programmes are dependent on a collaborative approach between librarians, academic staff and information technologists. It is hoped that through working together a greater understanding and appreciation of the work that each group does will be promoted.

Project Verity another EU funded collaborative project, was aimed at assisting young people in the 13-19 age group to find resources on the Internet and to develop their information seeking skills. (Papazoglou, 2000) As well as covering issues such as how to start searching, where to find information and how to evaluate the process, the project web site also has a self-evaluation questionnaire, which enables users to assess their strengths and weaknesses when searching and writing. Continued use of the questionnaire shows how these areas are improving over time.

Nieuwenhuysen (2000) outlined courses that are offered at two Belgian universities. What has been particularly noticed throughout the development and use of these courses is the need for them to be updated as the available technology and software change. Again, the need for a collaborative approach is highlighted, as experience has shown it is too much for one person to deal with all aspects of online provision.

The projects outlined above are represent only some of the work that has been carried out at the European level. It is interesting to note that all these projects particularly highlight the increasing demand for facilities for learners at a distance from their institutions or remote from any support services. These considerations must be taken into account at a time when virtual learning environments are being developed and promoted as a potential solution to the problems associated with widening participation in higher and Post- 16 education. Although this is an aspect which has been particularly noted in the European experience it will no doubt be of concern elsewhere. Many of the aspects of information literacy considered in the American and Australian contexts apply equally to the experiences of the Europeans and others world wide who have carried out work in this area and which have not been considered here.

Summary and conclusion

In comparison with the UK, considerable progress has been made into the development of information literacy strategies in the US and Australia. Although the UK has a relatively cohesive strategy in the earlier stages of the educational process, this has not been pursued into Post- 16 and higher education. Libraries and information services need to be, and be seen to be, the driving force behind these new and collaborative approaches to curriculum delivery in order to ensure that they retain a key role in providing information skills training to students. They must continue to change the traditionally perceived ideas of the library to others engaged in the process of education. They must publicise the fact that they have much more to offer than traditional bibliographic instruction and that they have the skills and knowledge required to contribute to the information literacy programmes being developed. There also needs to be a change in student attitudes so that they realise that the skills with which they are being equipped will be of value to them throughout their lives.

As the foregoing illustrates there has been much work carried out in the area of information literacy. The importance of information literacy is not just confined to the educational sector but applies to the concept of lifelong learning and to the wider considerations of society as a whole. The United Kingdom does not have such a well developed approach and there is no equivalent requirement for students in the tertiary education sector to demonstrate information skills and literacy as there is, for example in Australia.