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The Current UK Context
The current developments in information skills training within the higher and Post- 16 education sectors in the UK,reflect some similarities with other countries, particularly with regard to the concept of lifelong learning. This concept has gained impetus as part of government policy and the link with skills, education and employment has been made in a number of initiatives, such as the establishment of the National Grid for Learning (NGfL), the University for Industry (UfI) and the Learning and Skills Council (LSC). Although the drive to develop a culture of lifelong learning is gaining momentum in the UK it is not as well established as that of the USA and Australia.
The current economic reality in Britain that underpins the need for information skills training and lifelong learning is that:
The estimated one in five adults in Britain who cannot function effectively with written words or numbers are more than ever excluded from our fast-moving society. Millions of unskilled jobs have disappeared, while the new jobs created in a dynamic economy require competences of a much higher order. The case for a radical improvement in skills…is that without it large numbers of unskilled people will not find or retain satisfying work, and the nation will lose competitiveness. (http://www.lsc.gov.uk/corporateplan_page3.cfm)
Until recently, responsibility for post-16 education in the UK has been fragmented with its different elements being spread over a wide range of bodies. To some extent this has been redressed with the formation of the Learning and Skills Council (LSC) in April 2001. Formed from the Further Education Funding Council (FEFC) and the Training and Enterprise Councils (TECs), it is responsible for all post-16 education and training in England, with the exception of the University Sector. This reorganisation should have the effect of achieving a more coherent approach. The Council's remit includes the following areas:
To raise participation and achievement by young people
To increase the demand for learning by adults
To raise skill levels for national competitiveness
To improve the quality of education and training delivery
To equalise opportunities through better access to learning. (http://www.lsc.gov.uk/corporateplan_page0.cfm)
Following the General Election in June 2001 a number of government departments were reorganised. The Department for Education and Employment was divided into its two separate entities and the Education part has been renamed the Department for Education and Skills. The fact that 'Skills' has been added to the departmental title suggests it has acquired a degree of prominence within the Government's education strategy. The Departmental remit is to
focus on raising standards in education further. Primary school standards improved in the last Parliament. There will now be a clear focus on improving standards in secondary education. The new Department will seek to get more students into higher education and to improve work-based training and lifelong learning. (from http://www.number-10.gov.uk/news.asp?NewsId=2093 visited on 11/06/01)
The area of adult basic skills has also been highlighted as a key area of government activity. This link between the iteration of skills and lifelong learning is now being explicitly made and reflects what has already been recognised in both USA and Australia.
Thus it can be seen that skills are an important factor underpinning the economic success of the country. The fact that a co-ordinated approach to skills training is being established for those who are not in higher education shows the importance that the government places on this area. This reflects the experience of both the USA and Australia where the importance of a skilled workforce has long been realised.
Primary and Secondary Education Sector
This sector of the educational system has been subject to a number of significant reforms in recent years, such as the introduction of the National Curriculum in1995, which standardised the delivery of education to all pupils of compulsory school age. It identifies the range of subjects, the ages at which these should be taught and sets attainment levels and targets. A feature of the National Curriculum has been the inclusion of key skills in all subject areas. Information and communication technology (ICT) now permeates all levels of the National Curriculum, both as a subject in its own right and as a support tool for teaching other subjects. It is through this that pupils are encouraged to develop information skills. The Qualifications and Curriculum Authority (QCA, 1999) reviewed the National Curriculum in 1999 (http://www.qca.org.uk/ca/inclusion/ncr_full_report.pdf) and stated these key skills include:
the ability to use information sources and ICT tools effectively to help find, explore, develop, analyse, exchange and present information and to support their problem solving, investigative and expressive work. An essential part of ICT capability is being discriminating about information and the ways in which it may be used, and making informed judgements about when and how to apply aspects of ICT to achieve maximum benefit. Pupils also develop understanding of the implications of ICT for working life and society.
Small (1999) provides an overview of a number of models which have been adopted to teach information skills in the school sector. The first was devised by Marland in 1981 and provides a nine-point matrix:
According to Small this essentially teacher-centred view has provided the basis for a number of other approaches to information skills teaching but these have recently given way to more child-centred views. These new methods attempt to make skills more transferable across tasks by making them more easily memorable for pupils. The stages outlined by Marland can still be easily identified but have been grouped together providing more manageable steps. The 'Big 6' as devised by Eisenberg and Berkowitz (1990) has the following stages:
Other models in a similar vein have also been devised. The 'FLIP-it' model, Focus, Logistics, Information and Presentation was devised by Yucht (1998) in the USA, and in the UK Herring's (1996) 'PLUS' model denotes Purpose, Location, Use and Self-evaluation.
Small states this reduction in stages has been successful in that it makes the process more easily memorable and therefore more transferable, but, with the exception of the 'Big 6', each of the models is in some way deficient. He has therefore devised his own model, the 'PGCE' Model, to address these problems. This acronym relates to what he calls the "four core elements of the research process", namely Plan, Gather, Communicate, Evaluate.
These steps are developed by using questions, what, who, when and how, at each of the stages of the model, for example,
Small himself admits that his model is not completely ideal but it can be regarded as a useful tool in identifying information needs. It has been developed into a package used by schools at Key Stage 3 of the National Curriculum and has also been used abroad.
The fact that a number of models have been devised in order to successfully teach key skills to pupils can be taken as an indication of the importance that educators attach to this element of the curriculum. The lack of similar models in other educational sectors is telling in this regard. Through the National Curriculum pupils are encouraged to gain skills in all the areas which Webber (2000) points out underpin all definitions of an information literate individual:
Post-16 Education Sector
As noted above the Learning and Skills Council is now responsible for all post-16 education and training, excluding the university sector. Qualifications and opportunities for 16 to 19 year olds were the subject of a review by Sir Ron Dearing in 1996 in his report Review of Qualifications for 16-19 Year Olds. The proposals made have had a profound effect on the educational opportunities available for this age group, not least because of the introduction of the notion of key skills. It is not possible to assess how successful many of the developments born out the Dearing report as they are still in the early stages of integration into the wider curriculum. The Key Skills Qualification, introduced in September 2000 (http://www.dfee.gov.uk/key/index.htm) covers at different levels of competence, the areas of application of number, communication and information technology. Although primarily aimed at the 16-19 age group the qualification is also available from age 14 onwards. Three other areas are also covered by the qualifications, namely, working with others, improving own learning and performance and problem solving. These qualifications are not mandatory but those wishing to enter higher education will be required to show evidence of having attained the first three skills or the equivalent. Although the term information skills is not explicitly referred to in the key skills curriculum such skills are implicit within the ICT aspect of the qualification.
The Key Skills qualification has recently become the subject of some debate and is likely to be reviewed and revised before the start of next academic year (Garner, 2001). Concern has been expressed over the amount of work that students are now expected to undertake as a result of the new A level system, of which the key skills qualification forms a part. The FEFC reported that, in common with other experiences of key skills training, students are more likely to feel motivated and see the relevance of the skills when they are taught as part of a subject rather than as a separate element or course. Concern has also been expressed that the qualifications are not going to have the impact on employment that was hoped, despite the fact that it was pressure from employers that was in part responsible for the revision of the curriculum and qualifications available to students (Hook, 2001). There has also been some suggestion that employers think that schools concentrate on the wrong skills and that there should be more concentration on working with others, problem solving and improving own learning and performance. It is felt that these skills are more likely to be of use in the workplace. (Henry 2001).
Post- 16 Education Sector
Evidence of information skills training for students in the Post- 16 education sector are not as well documented as those which have taken place in the higher education sphere. Where examples are available they tend to be less up to date than their equivalents in higher education.
Outlining their experiences Rowland and Warner (1997) state that both an integrated and 'standalone' approach are appropriate. Both ensure that skills are taught and reinforced, both by library and academic staff through their contact with the students. The adoption of an information skills training programme aimed at all students has had beneficial effects for students, the library and the college. As has been highlighted before students benefit by being able to engage with their studies more fully and effectively, as well as acquiring skills which can be transferred to environments outside the education setting. The college benefits through having improved retention rates and an enhanced corporate image which can have beneficial implications in terms of finance. In the particular case described by Rowland and Warner the course attracted funding which in turn enhanced the image and status of the library within the institutional setting.
Basu and Duigan (1997) state that a programme of subject-mapping, research and presentation has been beneficial to students who were able to transfer the skills learnt to other assignments. As has been noted before the success of the programme lay in its integration to the course rather than being a separate element and "full collaboration between teaching and learning resources staff, in the planning as well as the delivery". Atkinson and Scott (1995a) emphasise the dangers inherent in assuming levels of prior knowledge as this may lead to the failure of even the best designed information skills programmes. Through their work in developing an information skills programme they have identified 11 factors which influence effectiveness (1995b). Most of these are essentially the same as have been identified through the USA and Australian experiences, and are as follows:
These points can provide a valuable checklist for those devising information skills programmes and the principles which they encapsulate are equally valid in any educational sector. The difficulty is applying them all in practice, where a variety different constraints and pressures may be in operation.
Higher Education
Introduction
Despite the fact that there is no overarching cohesive strategy to information skills training in higher education in the UK, as there is for example in Australia, there are many examples of 'good practice'. These, although fragmented across the sector, highlight a commitment to improve on current practice. An examination of some of this work highlights many of the same features and difficulties as experienced by colleagues in the USA, Australia and elsewhere. In general there is far less published material in the UK covering information skills than in comparison with the USA and Australia. This is not to say that there isn't any work taking place in this area but there is less material to draw from when considering the UK context.
The Standing Conference of National and University Libraries (SCONUL, 1999) have noted an increase in the amount of time higher education institutions are spending on orientation and post-orientation activities with students, with the average having risen from 13 to 22 hours over the last 6 years. Within this there is an identifiable bias towards the new universities, but there is a visible trend in increasing numbers of users receiving orientation and post orientation sessions in all institutions.
Definitions
Again, as has been the case elsewhere, there is no clear and agreed definition of what is meant by information literacy or information skills, although references in the UK literature do tend towards the latter rather than former phrase. Joint et al (2000) state that information literacy relates to "the teaching not just of information retrieval skills, but also the goals for which information skills are needed". Rhodes and Chelin (2000) also concur that there is no agreement about what is meant by information skills, but they use the term to denote "a range of skills used in the location, retrieval and evaluation of material in various forms".
Criticisms of Information Skills Training
The inclusion and integration of information skills training into the higher education curriculum is not welcomed or seen as a desirable goal by everyone. Peters (1998) summarises some of the arguments against the drive to include information skills. Firstly, there is a view that although employers state they are looking for transferable skills from graduates, it should not be for employers to dictate the content of the curriculum in higher education institutions. There are also arguments surrounding whether students need actually to possess the required skills or the "ability to talk about them, to talk the same language of employers". The lack of agreement on whether skills should be "discrete, or contextualised within subject areas,... makes it more difficult to emphasis their 'transferability' and relevance for employment." Moreover there is a feeling that the argument about transferable skills is somewhat spurious because employers themselves do not the see the skills which are being taught as being of relevance. "Employers do not endorse the four skills seen by the Dearing report to be key to the success whatever they intend to do in later life". This final point has echoes in the concerns voiced over the post-16 key skills qualification, where employers feel that the wrong skills are being taught or still see them as being irrelevant. (Hook, 2001; Henry, 2001)
According to Peters a fear has been expressed that the expansion of the higher education sector has lead to the admittance of some who do not possess sufficient ability to obtain a degree, and skills teaching and reform is seen as a means of compensating these students. As it is mainly the 'new' universities that are recruiting non-traditional students and introducing the notion of skills programmes there is perceived to be a danger of establishing a "two tier higher education system with one sector teaching people essential skills and the other developing experts in particular areas of knowledge". (Peters, 1998)
Overall, there is evidence from bodies such as SCONUL that institutions are becoming aware of the need for information skills training and are establishing the means of providing this for their students, which negates the arguments presented by Peters. As so many others considering this topic have concluded, there is a set of skills which are necessary, not only to enhance the individual's experience of higher education but which will stand them in good stead both in their future employment and in the context of lifelong learning.
SCONUL Information Skills Task Force
SCONUL formally acknowledged the need to address the question of information literacy and information skills training for students with the formation of the SCONUL Information Skills Task Force in December 1998.
The Task Force has identified two levels of competency to the acquisition of information skills within higher education. The first relates to study skills, or the tools needed to be a learner, which students will require to undertake a course of study. This includes
"This approach supports the idea of a 'competent student' - one who is able to function effectively as part of the academic community".
The second strand relates to a student's ability to apply skills to their future occupation after leaving higher education. In this context the term information literacy is used and relates to:
attributes of awareness and understanding of the way in which information is produced in the modern world, critical appraisal of the content and validity of the information…some practical ideas of how information in the real world is acquired, managed, disseminated and exploited, particularly with the knowledge of how appropriate professional groups use the information in the workplace, in business, and in the world of culture and the arts. This 'information' may be textual and published information but will also include other forms of information communication, both formal and informal, designed and fortuitous, interpersonal and via information technologies in a much more encompassing way.
By considering different levels of information skills a set of seven 'headline' areas was developed by the Task Force. These seven skills are:
These skills have been used to construct a diagrammatic model (SCONUL, 1999) which illustrates the progression from novice information user to expert. It is built on the fundamental skills of basic library skills and basic IT skills. The process is intended to be iterative so that progression is made by the repetition and practising of the skills outlined above.
According to the Task Force it is anticipated that perhaps only the first four skills will apply to undergraduates in their first year of study and then at the other end of the spectrum postgraduate and research students will have more developed skills and will be trying to attain the seventh skill.
As previously identified in both the USA and Australia, the Task Force has suggested that to be successful, information skills training should be an integral part of the subject curriculum, not a separate entity. Other factors influencing the success of a programme are identified as :
As a development from the initial areas of research, the attention of the Task Force has recently turned to the issue of performance measurement . During a workshop session at the SCONUL conference on April 2001 the main critical areas required for information skills programmes to be successful were discussed. Town (2001) states "In summary it might be said that the important factors revolve around students, academic staff, integration of programmes and L&T [Learning and Teaching] strategies and policies, and management issues and resources, including LIS staff capabilities".
Many of these issues have parallels with the experiences of those responsible for devising programmes in the USA and Australia. Student concerns include flexibility in order to meet the needs of the increasingly diverse experiences of students, and to meet different types of course delivery, as well as providing a resource which is available to students when required. The concerns with regard to academic staff include establishing partnerships and encouraging the active promotion of information skills and programmes. Also familiar was the need to ensure that courses are integrated with academic programmes and other issues such as ensuring library and information staff themselves have the skills required to undertake information skills training. This initial work will provide the basis for the development of comprehensive measurement framework.
Whilst there is no generally accepted set of performance criteria, such as that found in Australian universities some information skills programmes include some form of performance indicators. An example of this can be found in the Information Skills Benchmarks document at South Bank University. (http://www.lisa.sbu.ac.uk/essentials/services/benchmarks.html visited 19/06/01). A progressive development of skills can be mapped which builds across the different years of a course, with skills levels increasing as a student moves on. This particular programme is based on the SCONUL model.
This type of approach is useful as it allows for tangible measurement of the acquisition and development of students' information skills. However the current lack of a nationally adopted system means that there may be disparities in the skills students gain between different institutions. This may prove to be problematic if, for eample, students move from one institution to another during their studies or undertake a higher level course which assumes a particular level of skills attainment, or move from an institution were there is no system to one where there are skills standards.
Peters (2001) examined information skills in the light of benchmarking statements devised as part of the Quality Assurance Assessment (QAA), but generally found that although some reference to information skills was made the consideration given to their acquisition was absent. According to Peters where references to information skills were made they tended to be vague, concentrate on IT skills and use only very general terminology. Factors such as this mean that the QAA could not be used as a reliable measure of the quality of information skills training that is taking place. An alternative approach to this issue therefore needs to be devised.
CASE STUDIES
Steele and Stewart (1998) provide a useful insight into a review of the quality of information skills provision at the University of Aberdeen. This was prompted by a combination of factors, including
In common with the USA and Australian experiences, Steele and Stewart's account of the review process highlighted a number of key aspects of information skills training.
The difficulties in teaching information skills were highlighted as being :
A shortage of space and computer terminals which precluded hands-on experience
There was widespread agreement in both student and teaching groups that an integrated approach to information skills training would be desirable. Some questions were raised about the assessment of students' information retrieval capabilities, and whether a role for a member of library staff would be appropriate in this process. Library staff considered some form of assessment important as a motivating factor for students to acquire information skills. As has been the experience in the USA, Steele and Stewart reported that there were difficulties associated with this, in terms of students failing to see the relevance of information skills and feeling coerced into undertaking information skills training. However, the fact that the consultation process in Aberdeen included all the stakeholders in the information skills training process may have been an important factor in overcoming such difficulties. This is due to the appearance of there being a great sense of collective ownership of the whole process. This has been highlighted previously as a key to successful programmes. Since the published report the course has been developed and includes features such as a pre-course questionnaire. Details can be found at http://www.abdn.ac.uk/diss/news/directs/d8/ittu.htm (visited 12/07/01). A WebCT approach has been adopted which allows for flexibility, for example , to accommodate departmental teaching timetables. Unfortunately there is no evidence of follow-up work by the staff at Aberdeen to assess the success of the programmes developed from the review process and it is therefore difficult to assess how well these have been received.
The Strathclyde Experience
Johnston and Webber ( http://www.dis.strath.ac.uk/prospects/literacy visited 21/12/2000) have developed an information literacy module at the University of Strathclyde which is run over one semester for second or third year undergraduates of the Business School. They define information literacy as "being comfortable and skilled in the use of information, (not just 'information technology)", and includes "a whole range of analytical, critical thinking and communication skills". The importance of developing skills that can be transferred to future employers is seen as underpinning the rationale for the course. Johnston and Webber differ from many other authors such as Rader, Bruce, Steel and Stewart on this subject by advocating that information literacy can be treated as a discipline in its own right, rather than favouring the curriculum integration model. Their module therefore has been created as a separate class so that "there was time for students to reflect on their experience, consolidate skills and develop a model of information literacy that related to them personally". The course was set up to be credit bearing so that sufficient time could be allowed for it and also to act as a motivating factor for those students undertaking it.
The Gaels Project (Glasgow Allied Electronically with Strathclyde)
The GAELS project was aimed at improving access to, and use of resources at the Universities of Strathclyde and Glasgow, particularly for post-graduate architecture and engineering students. Part of the project developed an online information skills course based around a core module which covered searching techniques, whilst other modules cover topics such as the use of databases and the Internet for information retrieval. The course was designed so that it could be used both as a stand alone resource for individual students or as part of workshops lead by librarians.
Kemp's (1999) reviews of the project draw out some interesting points that others involved in course design may need to bear in mind. He notes that in order to meet some of the key requirements of the courseware certain concessions had to be made. For example,
Highlighted again was the need for a collaborative approach between the various stakeholders in the project. However Joint et al (2000) draw out a number of other issues. Firstly there was a perception amongst the academic staff that they themselves did not possess sufficient skills in information retrieval in an electronic environment. As a result of this they were not in a position to be able to provide any information skills training through their teaching or research supervision. The implication of this is that information skills training could have a wider remit to include staff instruction as well as student instruction.
The second issue highlighted is that due to the structure of higher education in the UK there is no need for departments to pay the library or information service for teaching work, such as information skills training and therefore no requirement for them to be subject to a teaching quality assessment. This situation "does create a financial incentive to departments to accept library and information skills teaching delivered outside the departmental teaching or research context. " (Joint et al, 2000)
This again raises issues about the importance of performance and quality measurement within information skills training programmes, as discussed above. Such matter need to be addressed if information skills training is to be seen as being worthwhile and valid. Overall the GAELS project was deemed to be successful. It received a positive response from users and an increase in skill levels was attained, as measured by pre- and post-task questionnaires. Kemps again concurs with the view that information skills should be taught as part of an academic course rather than in isolation. (Kemp, 1999)
DELIVERY METHODS : On-line Courses
The TILT Project
The advantages of an online course as a means of providing information skills training for users are summed up by Creanor, Durndell and Primrose(1996) in their overview of the development of the Teaching with Independent Learning Technologies (TILT) programme. They state that it:
enables us to explore potential solutions to many of the problems which have plagued library teaching. It enables us to extend our range, in terms of both content and numbers. It is flexible, capable of application in formal teaching contexts and also open to use for private study. And, with its emphasis on generic skills and self-directed study, it adopts a modern teaching approach.
The TILT programme was originally developed in 1993 and included five modules dealing with issues such as literature searching and information retrieval as well as basic study skills. By 1996 the modules had been incorporated into the undergraduate teaching programme in more that 130 institutions in the UK and elsewhere. This is important because by using such generic skills packages developed at one institution, time and resources can be saved at others, leaving individual institutions to arrange supplementary training where necessary. The development of generic programmes and their subsequent wider application also helped to defray development costs. There is some evidence that these courses are still available to students. However there is no formal evidence about the extent of this use or whether the original modules have been updated either by the original developers or by institutions themselves as their information skills programmes have evolved.
The Internet
Rhodes and Chelin (2000) carried out a survey of 68 UK universities to ascertain the level of use of the Internet for information skills training. The survey showed that almost 70% of those surveyed use the Internet for some aspect of information skills training although 10% or less is delivered solely through the web. Several reasons are suggested for this low take up of web-based resources. These include
The need for technical assistance and support was a factor highlighted in the Belgian experience by Nieuwenhuysen (2000) and in a similar fashion by the GAELS project where the potential sophistication of the web site had to be tempered by the need for it to be easy to update and maintain. (Kemp, 1999) These difficulties should not be allowed to stand in the way of the development of web based resources. As has been noted above the seeming reliance by current students on the Internet for information should mean that they will be attracted to web based resources rather than the traditional methods. The exploitation of this trend, by using a technology which students themselves favour may have the effect of increasing the numbers of those who receive and benefit from information skills training.
Workbook approach
An alternative approach to information skills training, that of the workbook, is described by Bailey and Jenkins(1995). This candid overview highlights the difficulties encountered with this method, for example
Several revisions were made to the process and the end result has been the development of a resource which covers a range of issues and skills such as literature searching, information sources and copyright. Several factors are highlighted as being key to the success of an information skills programme
It is vital therefore that institutions and the individuals themselves see the need for particular staff skills and provide the means for them to obtain them. The authors again stress the need for a collaborative and co-operative approach to information skills training by all who are involved in the process. There is also a need to evaluate students' progress throughout their studies in order to assess the effectiveness of the programmes being delivered.
Summary and Conclusions
SCONUL (2001) has published its vision of academic library and information services for the year 2005. In this document a number of factors and issues are highlighted which may affect services in the coming years. These cover a diverse range of matters such as publishing, learning and teaching and research. The need for information skills training and the role of librarians within this is recognised. It is thought, however, as in the American experience, that this role will not automatically be recognised by all other parties in the academic community and that librarians will have to fight for their rights as partners in this process.
The SCONUL vision also recognises the changes to learning and teaching and support services which will be required to address the challenges of more distributed learning environments. They point out that:
"Services which do not respond positively to the new learning agenda will run the risk of being marginalised. New forms of strategic alliances and learning partnerships will be common both at service and institutional levels. Such partnerships will include relationships with teachers and other learning providers, [and] with other learning support professionals."
They also highlight the fact that in terms of learning support there may be a "further blurring of boundaries between the roles of academic, academically-related and support staff, with opportunities for library staff to act as advisers and rights managers, as well as extending their roles as trainers and developers of information and learning skills."
This national recognition of the changes which are affecting the library and information service operating environments may serve as a spur to the development of plans to address the challenges of the future. Despite the fact there is no formal coherent strategy for information skills development and training within the higher education sector there is a great deal of work taking place in this area. However more comprehensive work in this area needs to be carried out by higher education institutions.
The work that has been done in the primary and secondary education sectors in establishing information skills in the curriculum provides an ideal basis for the development of these skills into the tertiary level, and indeed this would seem to be a logical progression. This would not only enhance the individual's academic experience but also make them more attractive to future employers. It would also provide a basis from which the process of lifelong learning can be developed.
The importance of skills training can be seen by the emphasis that the government is now attaching to it. The economic well being of the country depends on having a skilled workforce and on having the means to change the skills of the workforce in order to meet the demands of a changing economy. This is will be achieved through the lifelong learning process which should be provided for and undertaken by everyone who wants to contribute to modern day society. Although somewhat behind countries such as the United Stated and Australia the evidence is that information literacy is indeed the zeitgeist of the times and an idea whose time has come at last for the United Kingdom.
Recommendations for Good Practice
On the whole the UK experience echoes that of the United States and Australia and the main features of information skills programmes are the same. Factors such as those summarised by Atkinson and Scott (1995b) need to be taken into account in order for successful programmes to be devised. Some of the key issues are:
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