This bibliography is a product of the first year of the ‘Innovations in Teaching and Learning in Higher Education’ project conducted for two years from September 1997 at the University of Plymouth (award reference L123251071). The project forms part of the Learning Society Programme of the Economic and Social Research Council. In its first year the project was funded by the ESRC and the Higher Education Quality Council. The remit of the project in the first year was defined as ‘to identify the characteristics of successful innovations in teaching, learning and assessment practices in higher education, in order to be able to improve the quality of these practices’. The project was to indicate ‘which factors…stimulate and those which inhibit innovation’. The first year was to explore the experiences of innovators, and the second year would examine ‘institutional climates’.

For the purpose of this bibliography and the conduct of the project a range of books, periodicals and other literature of higher education, other levels of education, industry, commerce, technology and economics was consulted. An analysis of the literature was produced as Working Paper 1 entitled The Languages of Innovation: listening to the higher education literature, and interpretations of ‘innovation’ were addressed in Working Paper 2 entitled ‘Innovation’: questions of boundary.

For convenience the bibliography is separated into two sections: ‘Higher education’ and ‘Innovation theory’, the latter consisting of material drawn from literature other than that concerned specifically with higher education.

I Higher education

Adelman, Clem and Alexander, Robin J. (1982) The Self-Evaluating Institution: practice and principles in the management of educational change, London, Methuen.

(Brief discussion of management of innovation, pp. 172-7.)

(Covers literature on PBL applying to medical education 1972-92, student and staff responses, positives and weaknesses, and advises cautious development.)

(Includes: Hall and White, ‘Teaching and learning technology: shifting the culture’, based partly on experience of the Scholar Project establishing an Interactive Learning Centre at the University of Southampton; Laycock, ‘QILT: a whole institution approach to quality improvement in learning and teaching at UEL; Jackson, ‘Managing to help teachers change: an agenda for academic managers’; Sayers and Matthew, ‘Issues of power and control: moving from “expert” to “facilitator”’; Stefani and Nicol, ‘From teacher to facilitator of collaborative enquiry’.)

(Examples of skills-based projects in a number of disciplines, developed under Enterprise in Higher Education at the University of North London, with some general discussion of the issues involved.)

(Adjustments to teaching approach in environmental sciences, University of East Anglia, increasing the range of work for students in large classes, producing positive student responses to acquisition of knowledge and of skills in preparation for world of work; issues of course management and professional development; not subject-specific and therefore transferable.)

(Introduction and difficulties of a multidisciplinary course in a conventional university.)

(Introducing RBE in an entire department, rationale of the innovation, staff responses, implications for ‘assisting staff to come to terms with radical teaching innovations that are introduced on a department-wide basis'.)

(Ch. 8 ‘Initiating and adapting to change' includes sections on changes affecting the basic unit [pp. 133-9.] innovation and the individual [pp. 139-42], strategies for, and barriers to, innovation [pp. 142-7].)

(Meanings, examples, uses, student-centred approaches to management of learning, assessment.....)

(A very important attempt to develop a theory, models and characteristics of innovation and the systems within which they intend to operate, derived from case studies of innovation process in Swedish higher education - though the case studies themselves are not presented or directly discussed.)

(Including case studies of reducing teacher control, independent study, one-to-one learning, student autonomy in learning medicine, promoting independent learning in a traditional institution.....)

(Origins of idea of such schedules, development of approach to creating `a comprehensive and analytical summary of their learning in a given subject' in contexts of self-directed and negotiated learning. Copy of handout used with postgraduate students.)

(Introduction and first 3 articles address ‘What is PBL?’, tracing development from 1950s/60s in health related and other professional areas. Pt IV contains examples of introduction and practice in mechanical engineering, social work, optometry, architecture, informatics, law and economics in a number of countries. Some discuss reasons for innovating and reasons for resistance.)

(Subject sections include focus on change and innovation, sources and directions of change, and obstacles to innovation, notably employment-related. See particularly Maurice Kogan on history [pp. 35-8], Penny Youll on physics (p. 67], John Kirkland on electrical engineering [pp. 85-91], John Brennan and Mary Henkel on economics [pp. 105-10], Penny Youll and John Brennan on higher education and responsiveness [pp. 198-202].)

(Analyses an attempt by engineering staff at Essex to use an OU independent study package, processes of and persectives on innovation.)

(Focuses on the importance of teachers having ‘a heightened awareness of their own capability’ and therefore for supportive staff development, to generate the confidence in developing student skills for lifelong lerning.)

(Includes accounts of projects on small group teaching, peer group learning, linking higher education and workplace, a student centred approach to teaching control engineering.....)

(Reducing didactic content of course [QMW], small group teaching, self-directed learning, range of assessment.)

(Includes, pp. 101-3), section on changes in teaching methods over previous five years, reasons, and distribution by type of institution.)

(Describes design and implementation of problem-based course alongside conventionally taught courses in mechanical engineering, discusses benefits of introducing problem-based course within existing structure.)

(Emphasises industry-education partnership in order to educate students for growth and flexibility; starts from Council for Industry and Higher Education 1987 paper Towards a Partnership.)

(Case studies of innovation: improving the education of architects; democratising governance at Enfield College; Goldsmiths' College Curriculum Laboratory; foundation of University Teaching Methods Research Unit [London]; Inter-University Biology Teaching Project; educational technology in medical education. Introduction and final review of case studies. Very little about these developments as practical innovations in teaching and learning. All connected with the establishment by SRHE of a Study-group on Innovation in Higher Education, including Collier [Principal, Bede College], Jane Abercrombie [UC London], Ruth Beard [Bradford, formerly UTMU], Tony Becher [Nuffield], Roy Niblett [London Inst of Ed Emeritus].)

(Discusses impact of technology-based learning, and teaching and learning for mass higher education, including survey of use of new technology in UK higher education institutions (Appendix C). Bibliography as separate volume.)

(Brief discussion [p.3] of students' learning experience, and promoting ‘advances in the methodology of teaching and learning at the highest levels'.)

(School-oriented, but conclusions (pp. 56-8) are generally relevant also to the impact of change ‘of any magnitude' on institutional culture and norms, and the need to understand the nature and roots of conservatism.)

(Emphasis [p. 12] on need for new teaching techniques, in order to teach ‘more and different students better, and to hold down costs'.)

(Very useful section 6 [pp. 15-18] on ‘The creativity of teaching', recognising that ‘in future more students must learn with (relatively) fewer staff, more efficiently and to higher standards. The students will be more widely dispersed and will begin their studies from a wider spread of starting-points'; also acknowledges existing imaginative ideas for change in teaching practices.)

(Theories of student responsibility, college environment, college outcomes, implications.)

(Development of PBL at McMaster and Maastricht, principles, problems, tutorial groups, tutor guidance, advantages and disadvantages.)

(Presents the steps in transforming, over 7 years, an entire medical curriculum from a chronic disorder labelled ‘curriculopathy' to problem-based learning, indicates the roles of the learning players, the search for consensus, reluctances, and attitudes. The twin causes of this top-down innovation were the overloaded curriculum and the need to respond to societal changes and pressures.)

(Some brief insights into innovation in the context of crisis and pre-crises, vision and implementation.)

(Contains 96 items, indexed by subject areas and teaching and learning methods. The latter covers, for example, active learning, student led group work, independent learning, lecturing and alternatives, performance/presentation, projects, role play/simulation and team teaching/learning.)

Exley, Kate and Dennick, Reg (1996) Innovations in Teaching Medical Sciences, Birmingham, SEDA.

(Particularly useful Introduction, and e.g. Cumming, ‘Problem-based learning projects in clinical medicine for first-year medical students. A lot on PBL and CAL. As with other SEDA innovation guides, each example is accompanied by a grid showing characteristics of the teaching and learning strategy, problems tackled and professional skills and competencies developed.)

(Contains 21 case studies in chemistry, physics, biology, physiology and pharmacology, agriculture and environment, mathematics, statistics and computing. Tables analyse the case studies by characteristics of the teaching and learning strategy, the problems tackled and transferable skills developed. The cases include mini-projects, self-assessment, student-designed experiments, simulations and other student-centred activities.)

(Topics indicate what is considered priority in ‘innovation in HE' at this time: educational technology - the next quinquennium; roles of researchers; research for the new Open University; innovation in HE in Canada [community colleges, student evaluation of teaching, identifying competences for a curriculum project, experiments in general education, reform of university government, formula financing]; innovation in assessment.)

(Ch. 1 establishes an ‘implementation perspective’, and Ch. 5 discusses ‘Staff development, innovations and institutional development’, the purpose of this chapter being ‘to provide clarity concerning the different ways in which staff development and innovation are related’ (p. 97). Pp. 101-3 discusses ‘staff development as an innovation’.)

(CNAA project on improving student learning, deep and surface learning, fostering a deep approach, case study of business law at Wolverhampton Polytechnic.)

(Full account of above, including case studies of business studies, hospitality management, automotive engineering, graphic information design, management accounting, oceanography, physiotherapy. Ch. 15 discusses essentials for introducing change.)

(Particularly: Neufeld and Chong, ‘Problem-based professional education in medicine' and MacVicar and McGavern, ‘The MIT undergraduate research opportunities programme’, both consider the history and theoretical basis of the innovations.)

(Topics of articles include independent study, learning contracts, EHE, work related learning, and self-managed learning assessment.)

(Includes: Holroyde, ‘Enterprise in higher education: origins and expectations; Wright, ‘Enterprise and the need for change’; Wedgwood, ‘EHE at Sheffield University’ in a section on ‘Practitioner perspectives’. Not a great deal relevant to teaching and learning. Appendix 2 is a bibliography on ‘Links between HE and employment (with particular reference to EHE).)

(Handbook on how to build a co-operative climate, analysing the situation, and building a scheme of self-managed learning.)

(Contains, pp. 14-20, review of British and American literature on innovation in education.)

(16 case studies, each with several pages of details, including the use of student-centred learning and open learning, groupwork, innovative lecturing and peer tutoring.)

(15 further case studies, each with several pages of details, including improved learning and computer teaching, from knowledge-based to understanding-based computing education and designing a course which encourages innovative learning.)

(Initial background emphasises that EHE was designedj ‘for innovations in teaching and learning’, and the booklet discusses aspects of managing change, including ‘embedding change’ and ‘the responsive university’ (pp. 40-3).)

(Draws on the publications of the Nuffield Group 1972-6, and discusses changes and barriers to innovation. See Nuffield Foundation below.)

(Section 4 [pp. 28-32] is on ‘Teaching and Learning’ – principles, policy, practice, examples.)

(18 case studies, each with 4-5 pages of details, including papers on learning contracts, student projects as a peer tutoring resource, computer based testing and assessment, and the use of comprehension tests, critical reviews and computer based tutorials.)

(In a Unesco series on ‘Experiments and innovations in education'. Addresses education in general, mainly schools. Definitions, agents involved in change, system and process, characteristics of resisters, innovators and innovative institutions, planning and executing change. Written at a time when systematic analysis of educational change in its infancy.)

(43 examples, each with roughly a page of details.)

(A curriculum innovation evaluated over two years, focusing on student perceptions. The 7 stages of PBL are outlined. A conclusion is that PBL ‘cannot just be viewed as a method of delivering curriculum, a major factor in the success of this process is that students learn the group dynamics of working together’ (p.87).)

(Describes, at University of Birmingham, Product and Manufacturing System design projects undertaken by teams of students, open-ended tasks, skills, supervision and peer assessment; discusses prerequisites for successful innovation.)

(Overcoming difficulty of implementing development of communication skills by focusing on active learning assignments relevant to the discipline. Describes ‘learning from disaster' exercise and mock public enquiries at Queen's University, Belfast.)

(PBL for nurse and science education. Need for lectures to compensate often slow rate of student progress in framing concepts and facing other difficulties.)

(Small groups, practical work, assessment, material and methods.)

(Students in small teams, student satisfaction and confidence, but concerned about complexity of the literature to be used and need for more practical experience before undertaking stage 3 research project.)

(Study of implementation of decision to promote independent learning in the first year of a Social Policy and Administration degree at an unnamed polytechnic. Combines analysis of perceptions, the political aspects of the working context, and theories of curriculum change.)

(Contains 4 chapters directly on Enterprise in Higher Education, 3 on staff and staff development, and others which address, for example, learner-centred change and the integration of open learning into mainstream higher education.)

(Some comments on inertia v. challenge (p. 4), Intelligent Tutoring Systems (p. 76), ‘conversation and Socratic dialogue’ (p. 104). Part II is ‘Analysing teaching media’ – audio-visual, hypermedia, interactive media, adaptive media and discursive media’, and ch. 12 in Part III is on ‘Effective teaching with multi-media methods’, but the discussion is not directed specifically at innovation.)

(The first of these LTDI publications contains 13 articles on aspects of experience and advice, motivating students and practical implementation, assessment and evaluation. The second contains 8 case studies of projects and initiatives in different Scottish institutions.)

(Experiments in alternative methods of teaching, despite constraints on innovation and the absence of institutional incentives to try, revealing scope to initiate changes ‘within established arrangements'.)

(Mainly curriculum innovation by whole institutions, based on Brown University’s faculty decision in 1969 to ‘replace, in toto, their traditional programe with a progressive, new student-centered curriculum’, which collapsed in the mid-1970s. The research tests an ‘institutionalization-termination’ model. Some general discussion of innovation, pp. 3-9. Literature survey and bibliography.)

(Humberside: open learning, pressures, curriculum, learning materials, technology, consultation.)

(Summarises ten volumes of case studies of open learning innovations. The reports were commissioned and published by the OLF between 1994-6, and the summary presents and discusses the case studies, including barriers to the introduction of the innovations.)

(Curriculum-focused, but contains brief, useful discussion of innovations satisfying and stimulating demand for change and producing role conflict. It emphasises that innovation is often a hears as well as a bandwagon, increasing work loads, undermining confidence, making innovators unpopular with colleagues, involving a career risk and threatening the establishment. It asks: ‘What makes innovation functional for the individual, and what kinds of rewards do or would compensate for such effects?’ (pp. 6-8)

(Models of innovation, course evaluation, explaining why some innovations succeed and others fail.)

(Mainly origins of change towards student-centred learning in theoretical controversies in English studies; features of a method at College of St Paul and St Mary.)

(Ch. 5 – ‘Innovation in learning’. The theme is that ‘like all successful businesses, education and training must innovate and invest in the future’ (p. 83). Mainly focuses on improved learning in schools, some references to FE, not HE.)

(Origins of history unit influenced by EHE, aiming to provide skills-based and enterprise-related activities. Details of independent study contract. Nominated for Partnership Award 1990, ‘closely scrutinised by external assessors', and received a commendation. Mentions [p. 77] Higher Education for Capability compiling database of innovations in humanities and social sciences.)

(Discusses innovation in ‘a new climate of opinion which is aware of the urgent need for change…I use the word “innovation” to refer to any new policy, syllabus, method or organisational change which is intended to improve teaching and learning’. It outlines ‘four waves of difficulty’ encountered by anyone embarking on an innovation (pp. 2-6). Successful innovation means that ‘teachers concerned must be involved from the start’ (p.9). Nisbet acknowledges a debt to Barry Macdonald [cf. above]).

(Australia, unsuccessful attempt at an interdisciplinary course, failing to assess constraints before attempting an innovation in a highly departmentalised system.)

(Describes a series of workshop sessions with students to promote deep rather than surface learning, ‘sophisticated' rather than ‘naive' conceptions of the meaning of learning.)

(Newsletters, interim and final reports, other papers - including collection on ‘Towards independence in learning', during work of the group 1972-5. Useful for range of innovations studied in variety of HE institutions. Collection of papers in possession of HS.)

(Brief account of SI, its origins, pioneering at Kingston University, development in the UK to 1993, operation, resources, gains and losses.)

(Failure of adaptation of traditional lectures to modular system, student dissatisfaction, alternative methods, employing resources in innovative way.)

(A 2-volume directory of 1700 projects, indexed variously [e.g. student-centred earning, group work…] each with half a page or more of detail.)

(Describes and experimental approach at Cardiff Business School, to develop student understanding of the innovation process.)

(Experience at Brunel of using PBL in the academic study of psychology, whereas it is normally used in medical and paramedical education. Reviews background of PBL and literature on effectiveness. Discusses work in two PBL seminar groups.)

(Each case study has several pages of details. They include student-centred learning, active learning and an alternative to the lecture/seminar model.)

(Although not about teaching and learning, it describes an innovation in staff appraisal, and uses Berg & Ostergren, Lindquist and others to establish a framework (e.g. forms of leadership) of analysis.)

(The first section, ‘Organizations and innovation' (pp. 1-27), particularly useful on the literature of social change, creativity, innovation as process, the people, the products; clear on impediments to innovation - cultural and structural. Excellent bibliography, pp. 101-12. A very useful touchstone for some of the key issues in phase of the project.)

(Mainly management, some access [e.g. Leeds], some EHE [e.g. Northumbria and Sheffield Hallam]. Institutional contexts, not teaching and learning.)

(Description, passim, of EHE activities at Queen’s University, Belfast. Discussion (e.g. pp. 2-9, of innovation and external pressures, the impacts of change and the locus of innovation. Examples and discussion (pp. 159-66, 172-3) of group projects and practical work.)

(Includes particularly: Rutherford and Mathias, ‘Staff development and innovation theory', including why some staff development innovations succeeded or failed; Boud and Lublin, ‘Student self-assessment', towards non-ad hoc approaches, difficult in present circumstances; Elton, ‘Cost-effectiveness in laboratory teaching', evaluated innovations show possibilities, responding to dissatisfaction, technical opportunities; Squires, ‘Three innovation strategies', summarising papers to this conference, reflecting ambiguous analyses of relationship innovation and recession, bottom-up and top-down innovation, needs for innovation.)

(An evaluation of the experience of independent study based on analyses of the life-history accounts of 46 students who negotiated and completed their own programmes of study in the School for Independent Study at North East London Polytechnic. Ch. 9 considers in particular ‘the deeper levels of student motivation’.)

(Capability passim, examples grouped under Business, Engineering, Humanities and Social Science, Science and Mathematics. Institutions include Middlesex, Wolverhampton, Humberside, East London… Some examples of resistance. Useful list of ‘examples and reports submitted to the RSA. [CHE, Leeds, has the hard copies.])

(Contents include papers on individually negotiated learning, action-centred learning in industry, IT and flexible learning, computers for teaching and learning and student group work.)

(Includes Clark on open learning, Winders on interactive transmission by satellite, Thomas on ‘Learning to be flexible’.)

(Identifying barriers to innovation, administrative strategies to support innovation.)

(Introduction covers the context of innovation. Papers in sections on learning group skills; managing group learning; using group-work to encourage student autonomy; case studies involving group-work, purpose-designed modules using group-work.)

(Some comments [e.g. pp.71-2] on how planning of organisational change works, plus useful bibliography.)

(Most useful for ch. 2: ‘The impetus for innovation’, discussing pressures for change [factual overload and didacticism, professional and personal skills development, changes in the practice of medicine, influences from higher education] and creating the conditions for innovation. Also ch. 3: ‘Examples of innovative learning and assessment’, which categorises, followed by 37 case studies (not all teaching and learning), and ‘Problems and solutions’.)

(Innovation to apply learning theory to develop ‘meaningful reception learning’, replacing lectures by a modified case method, teaching law in large groups at progressively higher levels of cognitive functioning.)

(Ch. XI = ‘University teaching as a matter for training and study’, in which pp. 107-11 discuss the need for research and experiment, and draw on experience in the US. ‘The research which we consider necessary is operational research..... The need is now for experiment....’(p. 111).

(This Australian study examines factors underlying approaches to teaching in four academic disciplines and teachers’ and students’ perceptions of lecturers. It reports students’ lack of enthusiasm for teaching and learning in lectures (except for examination purposes). Teachers were also not enthusiastic, but only one of the 15 interviewed ‘reported using allocated lecture time for non-lecture teaching strategies, and in many cases the traditional monologue lecture was used’.)

(Describes an initiative at the University of Lancaster for teaching of history, winner of Partnership Award [Cadbury Schweppes] 1990. Discusses questions of purpose and nature of history teaching, group work, assessment, computer literacy, and university-community relationship, all in relation to development of skills and personal qualities. Lists relevant history associations.)

II Innovation theory

Relates mainly to business, industry and technology. The literature is extensive, and the following are the items so far identified as of use.

Burns, Tom and Stalker, G.M. (1961, edn of 1994 with new Preface by Tom Burns), The Management of Innovation, Oxford, OUP.

(Class text on innovation at macro level. Ch. 2 = ‘The organization of innovation’. Ch. 9 = `Industrial scientists and managers', an important discussion of issues of power and status.)

(Ch. 1, ‘Innovation: limits to the orthodox mainstream’, challenges the way in which innovation ‘in macro organizational behaviour has been theorized in a very restrictive and simplistic manner’. It explores the reasons for growing attention to innovation and its ‘objectification’. Ch. 3 pursues the discussion of problems arising from ‘the objectivist approach to innovation’ and the equating of technology with equipment and the neglect of ‘knowledges’. The whole argument is reviewed in ch. 11, ‘Innovation studies: technology, organization, and knowledge’.)

(Industry and competitiveness, diversity and convergence in Europe, research and innovation, the legal and regulatory environment… Focus on the firm and society, innovation and public action.)

(Ch. 3 = ‘The implications of the new learning about innovation for innovation policy’, including sections on innovation as a process, and innovative capabilities and the management of innovation. Ch. 7 discusses ‘Developing effective innovation policy: the role of “innovation agents”.)

(Innovation as a fashionable social science area, but unstable for lack of theory. Focus on complex organisations, typologies, primary and secondary attributes, prescriptions for innovation research. Focus on administrative adoptability.)

(Discussion of innovation as arising primarily from knowledge and work to exploit opportunities, ‘not from a flash of genius’. Examples all from industry and commerce.)

(cf. particularly ch. 2, ‘Purposeful innovation and the seven sources for innovative opportunity’ [Begins: ‘Entrepreneurs innovate. Innovation is the specific instrument of entrepreneurship… Innovation… creates a resource…’ Describes innovation as an economic or social rather than a technical term]; ch.11, ‘Principles of innovation [e.g. ‘Purposeful, systematic innovation begins with the analysis of the opportunities…].)

(Mainly change at national level, but p. 227: ‘Not to innovate is the single largest reason for the decline of existing organizations..... We have again entered an era of innovation, and it is by no means confined to "high tech".... social innovation .... may be of greater importance’.)

(Chs 5-9 discuss success and failure in industrial innovation; innovation and size of firm; uncertainty, project evaluation and innovation; innovation and the strategy of the firm; aspects of public policy for innovation. Schumpeter’s discussion of cycles and entrpreneurial innovation is the theme of pp. 207-14.)

(Expanded edition of Freeman, 1982, omitting some of the earlier discussion, e.g. on Schumpeter. A useful new part 4 with a more extended discussion of public policy for science, technology and innovation; the information society and employment; beyond the economics of industrial innovation. Helpful literature surveys for each chapter.)

(Challenging account of critical periods of change, as now, opportunities and resistance. Most relevant ch. is Ch. 1, ‘The argument’.)

(Open University set text. Includes Peter F. Drucker, ‘The discipline of innovation’ and sections on implementation and `ideas into innovation'.)

(In 3 parts: some economic issues; channels for technological change; a case study in invention and innovation, the development of the Hovercraft. A short section on innovation (pp. 19-20) summarises debate about invention, innovation, commercial production and use. Passim on the role of the partners, including research and development.)

(A useful study of technological change, with particular reference to ‘synthetic innovation’ in the American context. Chs 1 and 2 outline obsolete ideologies, the bunching of a capacity to innovate in defence, medicine and agriculture, and sequences an staging of innovation. There are helpful references to recent history and a discussion of ‘radical vs incremental innovation’. Although the whole book is focused on ‘product synthesis’ and its policy and organisational contexts, there are important implications for an understanding of ‘innovation’.)

(‘... a critical introduction to the psychology of innovation and change at work.’ Ch. 5 = ‘The antecedents of organizational innovation'. Ch. 6 = ‘The innovation process’. Useful bibliography.)

(Mainly concerned with economic indicators of firms’ innovation record. Disputes the Schumpeter theory that innovative activity relates to market power and firm size. Most of the book is concerned with detailed econometric analysis, but e.g. pp. 1-5 discusses ‘what makes firms innovate’, and throughout various models of ‘innovation output’ are explored.)

(Described as ‘a study carried out for the Commission of the European Communities, Directorate-General Information Market and Innovation’. Surveys economic arguments about innovation relating to production, and studies ‘some little-known aspects of the innovative process and its results’ (p. 1). Ch. IV is an ‘analysis and typology of barriers’. Mainly at a macro-European level, but with useful discussions of large and small scale innovations, innovator status, and (pp. 228-30) the inefficiency and obstacles raised by universities [‘As regards innovation, the universities seem to create difficulties all along the process, except in the financing of industry and marketing stages’]. It lists the areas in which universities are most at fault, including in relating to the education of students, the production and dissemination of knowledge, and participation in application and implementation.)

(Although little explicitly about innovation, Part II (‘Can capitalism survive?) is an extensive discussion of the economic conditions of change and obsolescence. P. 132 contains a well-known comment on the transition from the genius and romance of innovation to the situation in which ‘technological progress is increasingly becoming the business of teams of trained specialists who turn out what is required and make it work in predictable ways’.)

(Mainly the generation, spread and impact of new technology. Scattered discussion of invention and innovation, intra-firm and intra-sectoral diffusion of innovation. Predominantly at a macro-level.)

(Innovation versus alienation, reasons for alienation, main elements of innovation, implementation difficulties.)

This document was added to the Education-line database 01 June 1998