Margaret Cox, King's College London

Christina Preston, MirandaNet Project

Kate Cox, University of Surrey

Abstract

Many claims have been made in the literature about the motivational effects of Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) on pupils, leading them to have a positive attitude to their work, spend longer on tasks and have more commitment to their learning. The authors of the present study have utilised their previous research evidence of motivation and the results of other previous projects to investigate the factors which motivate teachers to use ICT. The findings on teacher motivation presented in this paper are part of the more extensive results of a MirandaNet project, funded by the Teacher Training Agency and Oracle. This project was set up to investigate the factors which have contributed to the continuing use of ICT by teachers experienced in using it for teaching. The evidence discussed in this paper was collected through a literature search, teacher questionnnaires, teachers' reports and interviews. The paper attempts to identify common factors that have motivated a range of teachers to sustain their use of ICT in their lessons. Weiner's analysis of motivation research and Ajzen's theories of reasoned action and planned behaviour have been used as a basis for the analysis of the results.

Our findings show that the motivational factors which correlated most positively with ICT use were: perceived ability to use IT; level of resources available and their satisfaction with IT; and whether using IT in teaching is considered to be interesting and enjoyable. The most significant negative factor was difficulties experienced in using IT. We also found that a whole range of other motivational factors attributed by the teachers to using ICT, such as: making the lessons more interesting for the teacher, increasing pupils' motivation, improving presentation of materials, making the teaching more enjoyable, improving the content of the lesson,and making the lessons more fun for the pupils were considered by the teacher respondents to contribute to pupils' learning.

This research project was set up to investigate the factors which motivate teachers to use ICT and to sustain their use of ICT in teaching. The aim of the project was to use the factors identified to develop guidelines concerning the professional development of practising teachers to enable them to use ICT appropriately in their teaching. The idea for the project came from the authors' experience of two projects, MirandaNet, which is directed by Christina Preston, and the IT and Motivation project, which was conducted by Margaret Cox in order to investigate the effects of IT on the motivation of pupils. The research is funded by the Teacher Training Agency and Oracle Corporation. Comparative studies are being developed in the Czech Republic and Finland.

According to Gross (1992), "trying to define motivation is a little like trying to define psychology itself". More usefully, Miller describes the study of motivation as "the study of all those pushes and prods - biological, social and psychological - that defeat our laziness and move us, either eagerly or reluctantly, to action" (Miller (1962) in Gross, 1992). For the purpose of our study we have identified two aspects of psychological research which are particularly relevant to this definition and our research. Firstly, we have identified motivational factors from the review by Weiner of studies into motivation, and secondly, we have used the theory of Ajzen (1988) which applies to attitudes and behaviour to examine factors leading to actions. We have confined our investigations to these aspects which are more directly relevant to the uptake of ICT in education than the many other biological, social and psychological factors referred to in Gross.

MirandaNet (see Preston, 1999), which was founded in 1992, is a non-profit making international partnership in ICT, supported by industrial partners, consisting of a fellowship of teachers, researchers and industry representatives using ICT for professional development. The Fellowship concentrates on professional development programmes using face to face workshops, on-line tutorials, on-line conferencing and web-site assignments. The core aim of MirandaNet is to support lifelong learning using advanced technologies across social, vocational, cultural and political divides by providing a forum and supportive network for its members. Helping teachers to develop management strategies to cope with the change required to use ICT effectively is viewed as an important part of the project's work.

The MirandaNet website, sponsored by Oracle, which links to the Virtual Teachers' Centre, is a key component of the project, introducing teachers and trainers to new styles of teaching and learning. Reports, case studies and Internet communications have been collected over the years to document the experiences of the MirandaNet project members, and much of this evidence has contributed to the research reported in this paper.

Recent reviews of a range of studies on the effects of ICT on students' motivation, conducted by Cox, have identified a number of specific motivational aspects, including enhanced commitment to the learning task, enhanced enjoyment and interest, increased self esteem and increases in independence and confidence (Cox, 1997; 1999). One of the studies reviewed, which was conducted by Gardner et al (1994), was on the use of portable computers during one school year by 235 pupils from a number of primary and secondary schools. The researchers found that the majority of the teachers reported a higher degree of motivation amongst the pupils and a better attitude to work when the pupils were using laptop computers. This motivation, leading to enhanced self esteem, was especially noticeable for the pupils in a school for special needs.

The UK IMPACT project (Watson, 1993), which investigated the impact of IT on children's learning, also found that the pupils' commitment to their work was enhanced by the use of IT. A more recent study by Robertson et al (1995) on the computer-related attitudes of teachers and students in an English secondary school, which were assessed by questionnaire items such as "I would like working with computers" and "I think I would enjoy working with computers", demonstrated that, in general, the teachers and students held a positive attitude towards computers.

These and many other studies provide corroborating evidence about the motivating effects of IT/ICT on students' learning. Many of the same motivating factors have been identified in studies of adults using new technologies. For example, Davis, Bagozzi and Warshaw (1989) developed a theory of 'action relating to reasons' (Technology acceptance model) based on the work of Fishbein and Ajzen (in Davis et al, 1989) to investigate the reasons why some people use computers and their attitudes towards them. Their model, shown in Figure 1, links the perceived usefulness and ease of use with attitude towards using ICT and actual use (system use). They tested this model with 107 adult users, who had been using a managerial system for 14 weeks. They found that people's computer use was predicted by their intentions to use it and that perceived usefulness was also strongly linked to these intentions. This supports the work of Ajzen (1988) and others who have found that a positive attitude towards performing certain behaviours was related to the perceived value of those behaviours.

Based on the work of various psychologists on adult attitudes and motivation, we have included in our literature review an investigation into what factors have been shown to motivate adults to adopt a range of behaviours, and what can be learnt from these studies about the relationship between teachers' intentions and their behaviour in terms of using ICT in their teaching.

In the UK during the early 1980s there was a national programme for ICT in teaching and learning in schools, namely the Microelectronics Education Programme (MEP, 1982-1986), which included a national scheme for the training of teachers. The approach was that of cascade and escalation, in which some teachers would attend a short course (from 6-20) hours) to receive training about ICT and were then given the task of taking their new found knowledge and skills back into the schools to train their colleagues. It was assumed that with sufficient training teachers would be motivated to use computers in their teaching.

During the 1970s and 1980s it had been assumed by national decision makers that the ICT training for teachers only required them to learn how to use the technology and the rest would follow automatically; rather like training teachers how to use a video player and then expecting them to use it in their lessons. However, research by Bliss et al. (1986) and Cox et al. (1988) showed that even substantial training of one or two teachers from many schools, involving several evenings per term, did not lead to a change in practice in the school nor sustained take up amongst other teachers in the school. These and other research projects over the last 20 years have shown that such national and local innovation projects have been less effective than hoped, with only a minority of teachers being motivated to use ICT regularly in their teaching. This previous research, suggesting that often training alone has not been effective in encouraging teachers to use ICT more in their teaching, indicates that more attention needs to be given to evidence concerning the factors that motivate people to adopt new behaviours. Therefore, next we shall consider the theories associated with people adopting new behaviours based on empirical evidence of a number of motivation studies.

In the 1980s much of the research on motivation was based upon competency values, i.e. "Motivation was determined by what you expected to get and the likelihood of getting it" (Weiner. 1990). Motivating activities were considered to influence emotions such as pride, shame and guilt as well as a general self-concept relating to one's ability to achieve specific goals. The development of motivation theories has also recognised the effects of the locus of control of the learner; the extent to which learners see events as being under their personal control (Blumenfeld, 1992). Furthermore, it has been shown that learners' personal perceptions of how much control they have over events in which they are involved will also affect their attitude towards computers.

Ames (1992) analysed the work of many researchers into motivation thus developing a framework for motivation relating to students' belief in themselves and their ability to do better through long term goals. She considered two types of motivation goals, performance goals and mastery goals, which involve different ways of thinking about oneself. Performance goals focus on one's ability and sense of self worth. "Especially important to a performance orientation is public recognition that one has done better than others or performed in a superior manner" in achieving specific goals. (Ames, 1992). These goals are directed towards achieving success in relation to the achievements of one's colleagues.

Mastery goals, on the other hand, relate to the belief that effort and outcome are interdependent. With such goals there is a motivation to learn by developing new skills, trying to understand the tasks, improving the level of competence and achieving a sense of mastery based on self-referenced standards. Achievement of mastery goals is likely to lead to a longer term high quality involvement in learning compared with achieving performance goals of particular tasks.

In his theory of planned behaviour, based on his earlier theory of reasoned action, Ajzen (1988) identifies many of the motivating factors which lead to or prevent people carrying out certain actions. According to this theory, shown in Figure 2, "although volitional control is more likely to present a problem for some behaviors than for others, personal deficiencies and external obstacles can interfere with the performance of any behaviour." (Ajzen, 1988, p 132).

Applying Azjen's theory to the motivation of teachers to use ICT, the uptake of ICT in one's teaching will depend upon the teacher's positive intention to use ICT. This will be influenced by the teacher's beliefs about the value of ICT and beliefs about the control he or she has in his or her professional practice. The attitude towards using ICT in one's teaching will also be influenced by the personality traits of the individual teacher.

Five major factors have generally been regarded as sufficient to describe people's wide variety of trait descriptions: Extraversion-introversion; Agreeableness; Conscientiousness; Emotional stability; and Culture (Norman (1963) in Ajzen (1988), p19). In our case, the impact of personality on behavioural change may mean that if a teacher is extraverted and conscientious, he or she is more likely to adopt new methods in teaching than someone who is cautious and nervous about change.

Research into people's attitudes that might influence their adoption of certain behaviours has shown that "the attitude toward a behaviour is determined by salient beliefs about that behaviour, termed behavioural beliefs"(Ajzen, 1988, p 120). In relation to teachers, these beliefs might include the effects on their role as a teacher, the impact on pupils' motivation, the impact on the teachers' influence in the school, how the behaviour might affect other teachers and so on. Furthermore, we might expect that teachers' attitudes towards using ICT can be influenced by the information they have about the value of ICT, their previous experiences in using ICT, their expertise in using ICT and the expectation that it will contribute to their pupils' learning.

The component, subjective norm, included in Ajzen's theory, represents the perceived social pressures on the individual, referring to people's beliefs concerning other people's attitudes towards the behaviour and how important their opinions are. In our case this would be the teachers' perception of the social pressure to use or not use ICT. For example, they may be influenced by requirements of the national curriculum or by their colleagues' use of ICT. In many previous studies, in other domains, attitudes have proved to be more influential than subjective norms but in the case of using ICT in one's teaching, because of the immense and growing pressures from educational reforms, parents, pupils and the media, it is likely that subjective norm will have a greater impact on teachers' use of ICT.

The 'perceived behavioural control' component refers to the extent to which teachers believe themselves to be capable of using ICT in their teaching which "is assumed to reflect past experience as well as anticipated impediments and obstacles" (Ajzen, 1988, p132). This factor may be influenced by locus of control, which was discussed earlier (Blumenfeld, 1992). The inclusion of this componenet in Ajzen's theory means that if teachers are not confident about their own IT skills then they may feel unable to use ICT in their lessons.

Empirical studies about teachers' uptake of ICT include those focusing on measuring their attitudes towards ICT for personal and teaching purposes, as well as others focusing on a range of factors which might influence them to take up the use of ICT. The latter are discussed in Cox, Preston and Cox (1999). The main focus of this paper is on aspects relevant to motivation of the individual teacher to use ICT.

In spite of more than 26 years of various government programmes in the UK, starting in the early 1970s, previous research, discussed in Cox, Preston and Cox (1999), has shown that the uptake of ICT in schools has been disappointingly low. Factors which have been shown to influence the uptake of ICT include the level of training, the amount of ICT resources, the existence of a supportive network within the school, and the relevance of school policies to the appropriate uses of ICT. In addition, in a review of previous studies of computer anxiety, Selwyn (1997) found that a major deterent to the use of computers by teachers was computer phobia. These teacher anxieties could be caused by:

• psychological factors such as having little or no control over the activity, thinking that they might damage the computer, and feeling that one's self esteem is threatened;

• sociological factors such as ICT being regarded as a solitary activity, needing to be clever to use one, and being replaced by the computer;

• operational factors such as being beyond one's abilities, having to cope with unfriendly jargon, and the likelihood of the technology going wrong.

These anxieties were found to be causes of computer phobia.

Woodrow (1990), who investigated the computer attitudes of 106 pre-service student teachers, found that positive attitudes correlated with an externally-oriented perception of locus of control. The external attribution of luck was most highly correlated with positive computer attitudes. In addition, those student teachers who felt that they had high ability were more positive about using computers, while those who felt that higher level of effort was needed to be able to use computers tended to have negative attitudes.

Although there have been relatively few studies of teachers' motivation to use ICT, in summary the theoretical and empirical research studies discussed here have suggested that motivation is an important factor influencing teachers uptake of ICT in their teaching. Factors influencing motivation include positive and negative attitudes towards ICT, personality traits, subjective norm and perceived behavioural control. What is not known is what aspects of motivation have influenced those teachers who are regular users of ICT and who often have the responsibility for helping their colleagues become regular users. Consequently, the main aim of the present research was to identify the motivational factors, which indicate a positive attitude of teachers towards ICT and its value to education.

Informal relevant research began in 1992 with the collection of the reports from the MirandaNet members. This was followed by the commissioned study which began in May 1998. The research is now in the final stage of analysis and reporting.

The objectives of the whole study were:

1. To identify the types of motivational experiences which teachers have through their use of ICT, the support they receive and the training they have had.

2. To determine the relationship between teachers' motivating experiences and their perceptions about the advantages and disadvantages of using ICT.

3. To identify the most suitable teacher education strategies for increasing motivation.

4. To develop a framework for in-service education, linking teacher education strategies to motivation.

The focus of this paper is on the first and second objectives, the final two objectives will be discussed in other papers.

In order to investigate the motivational factors which have influenced experienced ICT users and IT teachers we planned to collect evidence from teachers who had been using a range of ICT resources in their teaching for some time and had showed evidence of a commitment to using ICT by either being a member of a teacher organisation associated with ICT or a colleague known to be an experienced user.

The project was conducted in four main stages.

Stage 1 involved:

• the analysis of a range of paper based and electronically based evidence collected from members of MirandaNet. MirandaNet scholars and fellows have been providing written reports of their uses of ICT and have attended seminars and conferences to discuss their work which has been documented in the form of reports, published articles and individual communications.

• an on-going literature review of other research publications and practical accounts of the motivation of teachers to use ICT and other relevant factors about teachers' uptake of ICT in their teaching.

A questionnaire was designed to collect evidence from teachers and other educators about their ICT experiences, expertise and use in teaching, their attitudes to the value of ICT for teaching and learning, the training they had received and, when relevant, their reasons for being a member of an association. The main sections in the questionnaire are shown in Table 1 below. The complete questionnaire will be provided in the final report of the project.

The sample who were sent the questionnaire consisted of:

• 15 members of MirandaNet, with an extra 2 each to give to their colleagues (total 45);

• 15 members of The National Association of Co-ordinators and IT Teachers (ACITT), with an extra 2 each to give to their colleagues (total 45);

• 15 members of Teachernet UK with an extra 2 each to give to their colleagues (total 45).

This stage involved identifying the main issues relating to the professional development of teachers to accommodate the differences between them in terms of the frequency and sophistication of their use of ICT in their teaching.

The purpose of the focus group meeting was to consider the issues revealed during stages 1, 2 and 3 of the project and to obtain further feedback on these issues and our analysis from practising teachers.

The source materials, referred to in stage 1, above included:

A. Existing MirandaNet Material

• Case material published on the Web

• Case material published in newspapers and articles

• Transcripts of emails

• Files submitted by each scholar

• Academic journals

• Professional journals

• Newspaper articles

• Web government documents – e.g. TTA, BECTA, QCA

• Other academic and relevant papers on the Web

The research evaluation strategies involved:

(a) Qualitative analyses of the MirandaNet data and evidence from the literature;

(b) Design, pilot evaluation and modification of the questionnaire. (The design of the questionnaire was reviewed by 10 peers from four different associations and was revised in the light of their feedback).

(c) Quantitative analysis of the questionnaire;

(c) Evaluation of the framework and recommendations for dissemination

The focus group of 20 teachers and other educators, many of whom also responded to the questionnaire, was used to review the results and contribute to more detailed explanations relating to the specific responses to the questionnaire and other data.

In this section the analysis of the questionnaire and existing MirandaNet material, relevant to the focus of this paper, is presented in three subsections. The first consists of the variables describing the sample. The second subsection presents the results relevant to factors associated with motivation. The third consists of the significant correlations between motivation and relevant factors. The relevant results from the questionnaire analysis have been analysed using SPSS and EXCEL and are presented below. Further results about specific factors regarding the uptake of ICT in teaching are discussed in Cox, Preston and Cox (1999).The interpretation of the motivation results are discussed in section 5.

Questionnaires were returned by 82 educators, 60.7% of the total of 135 questionnaires that were sent. Table 2 and Figure 3 show the proportion of male and female respondents and the distribution of ages respectively.

The mean age of the respondents was 42 years, which shows that, for our sample of experienced ICT users, the majority were in the middle aged bracket. This is contrary to some previous research findings reported in the literature that ICT is mostly conducted by newly qualified and younger teachers, although since many of the secondary school respondents held senior positions in their own departments, i.e. as IT/ICT co-ordinator, it is not unexpected that they would have several years' teaching experience already and therefore be older than the majority of newly qualified teachers. There were many more males than females in the sample, which could be due to there being more male IT teachers and co-ordinators nationally. The detailed reasons for this can be investigated at a later stage.

The majority of the sample were not members of the professional organisations that were targeted for this project. 37 respondents were from the three associations, namely MirandaNet, ACITT, and TeacherNet, whereas the remaining 45 were their colleagues. The distribution of the groups of the respondents is shown in Figure 4.

Figure 5 below shows the distribution of the phases in which the respondents teach. The majority were teachers in secondary schools with just over a quarter from primary schools. A very small minority stated that they teach in the 6th form or were involved in cross phase work. Some of the respondents were teacher educators or held other positions outside of schools. Figure 6 shows the job distribution of the respondents, indicating that the largest group were IT teachers or co-ordinators, with 20% being other class teachers, and approximately 20% being managers. The remainder (under 10%) were in a range of other educational positions, such as librarians, special needs teachers and IT technicians.

The questionnaire contained a number of items concerning potential motivation; increasing (+) and decreasing factors (-), based on the work of Weiner and Ajzen discussed in section 2. These items related to:

• the extent to which teachers found it easy to think of ways to use ICT in teaching

• liking using ICT

• practical difficulties in using ICT

• satisfaction with the level of resources available

• whether using ICT makes lessons more interesting

• whether using ICT makes lessons more difficult

• whether using ICT makes lessons less fun

• the extent to which using ICT is considered to be fun

• if ICT increases prestige

• if ICT increases power

Table 3 shows the mean responses for the items referring to the factors relating to motivation. For the first 11 statements in the table the statements are all positive, indicating that for any mean value higher than 3 the majority of respondents agreed or strongly agreed with the statement. For example, for the statement "IT has improved the presentation of materials", the mean response score of the 75 replies is 4.19, which is greater than a response of 4 which indicates that the majority agreed or strongly agreed with the statement. The statements are listed in order of highest to lowest scores but from the 12th statement onwards, starting with the statement "Using IT in teaching is counter-productive due to insufficient resources" a mean score of 3 or less indicates that the teachers did not agree with these negative statements. meaning, for example, that they really enjoyed using IT in their teaching (mean = 1.51, disagreed to strongly disagreed).

These findings show that the majority of teachers considered ICT to have improved the presentation of material; to make lessons more fun for the pupils and more interesting for the teacher; to make administration more efficient, and give the teacher a greater awareness of its uses. The mean responses for negatively phrased items, relating to pupil motivation, benefits for learning, and enjoyment of IT use, were very low. This indicates that, in general, IT was considered to increase pupil motivation, improve learning, and be enjoyable.

Figures 7, 8 and 9 show the distribution of responses for three of these items. Figure 7 shows that the vast majority of teachers agreed with the statement "Using IT in my teaching makes my lessons more interesting for me". Figure 8 shows that most teachers did not consider using IT in their teaching to be unenjoyable. Furthermore, Figure 9 indicates that most of the sample did not consider using IT in teaching to make it more difficult to control the class, although a small minority did believe this. Therefore, the findings show that, in general, the respondents thought that using IT in their teaching made lessons more interesting but did not make it less enjoyable nor more difficult to control the class.

Comments from the teachers also showed aspects of a positive attitude towards ICT:

“ IT brings lots of knowledge and information alive”

“Using IT lets pupils take more responsibility for their own learning”

“Learning with IT enables the student to find the style of learning that suits them”

“When using IT children are not afraid of making mistakes, so they are more prepared and try more complex or harder work”

“Pupils can work at own pace”

“IT is a tool that can increase the quality of learning by keeping the focus on the learning objective and not the process of researching/presenting/collating/ information”

For the purpose of the analyses of this section, a score for the use of IT was calculated for each of the respondents'. This was achieved by summing the responses given concerning their use of various forms of ICT in their teaching. Correlations were then calculated between the motivational factors themselves shown in the spreadsheet in Appendix A, and the factors with this score for the use of IT, also shown in Appendix A. Correlations larger than 0.3 were considered to be important as this indicates that the two variables would share just under a 10% (0.9) of the variance, and therefore suggests a reasonable size relationship. Positive and negative relationships were observed as some of the items were negatively phrased.

A number of motivational factors were found to correlate positively or negatively with each other and are highlighted in the spreadsheet. For example,

Question 1 "I find it easy to think of ways to use IT in my teaching" correlated negatively with:

Q3 "I have difficulties using software/hardware",

Q9 "IT makes lessons more difficult for me"

Q10 "IT makes lessons less fun for me"

Q12 "IT reduces pupils' motivation"

Q16 "Using IT in my teaching is not enjoyable"

Q30 "Using IT in teaching is counter-productive due to insufficient resources"

This means that the teachers who found it easy to think of ways of using IT in teaching did not agree with any of the negative statements above such as having difficulties with software and hardware and making the lessons more difficult.

We also found that a whole range of other motivational factors attributed by the teachers to using ICT, such as: making the lessons more interesting for the teacher, increasing pupils' motivation, improving presentation of materials, making the teaching more enjoyable, improving the content of the lesson, and making the lessons more fun for the pupils were considered by the teacher respondents to contribute to pupils' learning.

A number of motivation factors were also found to correlate with use of IT and there were also strong correlations between many of the other factors, as one would expect.

Of all the motivational factors considered for this paper only seven were found to be strongly correlated with overall use of IT in teaching. There were strong positive correlations between use of IT in teaching and the extent to which the respondents found it easy to think of ways to use IT, level of satisfaction with the resources available, and the extent to which IT was considered to make lessons more interesting. In addition, use of IT in teaching was negatively related to the extent to which they had difficulties using software/hardware, the extent to which IT was considered to make lessons more difficult, the extent to which using IT was considered to be unenjoyable, and the degree to which using IT was considered to be counter-productive due to insufficient resources.

Therefore, in summary, of all the motivational factors, the findings of the correlations suggest that the most important factors were:

• perceived ability to use IT;

• difficulties experienced in using IT;

• level of resources available and their satisfaction with IT; and

• whether using IT in teaching is considered to be interesting and enjoyable.

The analysis of previous research and theories about motivation and attitudes and behaviour has shown that a range of factors can contribute to teachers' motivation to use ICT. These include their attitudes to ICT, their beliefs in the value of ICT for teaching and learning and their perceptions of whether or not they can use it themselves and use it effectively in their teaching. Motivational factors include making lessons more interesting and more fun, contributing to pupils' learning, improving the presentation of materials and making the lessons more diverse.

Our analysis of the relationship between extent of IT use and motivation, has shown that the most significant motivation factors relating to use were: perceived ability to use IT; difficulties experienced in using IT; level of resources available and their satisfaction with IT; and whether using IT in teaching is considered to be interesting and enjoyable. In referring to Ajzen's theory of planned behaviour we can deduce that the negative factors amongst these have not been sufficient to deter the teachers in our sample from using ICT, but the significant correlations imply that the more interesting and enjoyable using ICT is, and the greater their perceived abilities are and the fewer the difficulties experienced then the more likely teachers are to use it regularly in their teaching

The project team would like to acknowledge the support for this study from the Teacher Training Agency, who funded most of the work, Oracle who funded the focus group and other meetings, conference presentations and teachers' on-line communications, MirandaNet who initiated the project and whose members provided valuable information about their uses of Information and Communications Technologies, members of The National Association of Co-ordinators and IT Teachers (ACITT), Teachernet UK, and the Learning Circuit who responded to the questionnaire survey and attended the focus group meeting.

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