Carole Leathwood
University of North London

Paper presented at SCUTREA, 31st Annual Conference, 3-5 July 2001, University of East London

INDEPENDENCE and autonomy feature strongly in western educational philosophical traditions, and continue to be emphasised today. The UK Government's Green Paper on 'The Learning Age' stresses the importance of independence for both individuals and the nation as 'a way out of dependency and low-expectation towards self reliance and self-confidence' (DfEE 1997, p. 6), and developments in on-line, resource-based and life-long learning rest, in many ways, on some variant of independent learning.

In this paper I draw on data from first year undergraduate students at an inner-city university to argue that notions of the independent learner are gendered and culturally specific, and as such are problematic for many students.

Concepts of learner independence, autonomy and selfdirected learning (SDL) have considerable appeal. For those from progressive and radical pedagogical traditions, independence in thought and action can be seen as essential to education as 'the practice of freedom' (Freire 1972).

Brookfield notes that 'the belief that SDL always works to further students' liberatory interests is ideologically sedimented in adult education's professional culture (Brookfield 1999, p. 15). Yet he also acknowledges that there are dangers, including the possibility of SDL being repressive rather than emancipatory. Indeed, there can be seen to be some convergence of progressive educational discourses and discourses of the New Right which demand an end to the 'nanny' state and eulogise 'self-reliance', something which the 'new' Labour Government has not exactly contradicted.

A major problem with concepts of independence is what Brookfield identifies as a set of common assumptions: ... for many learners and educators, the image of selfdirection is of a self-contained, internally driven, capable adult learner working to achieve her goal in splendid isolation (Brookfield 1999, p. 13).

I suggest that this ideal learner, however, is usually conceptualised not as female, but as male, white, middle class and able-bodied (Ruddick 1996): it is a self unencumbered by domestic responsibilities, poverty or self doubt.

In this discursive framing, support, with its connotations of need and dependency, is pathologised.

According to Griffiths and Smith, despite the myriad of meanings related to independence in learning, it is always valued, and 'conversely, "dependence" is something that is associated with immaturity or inferior education' (Griffiths and Smith 1989, p. 285).

Elsewhere, I have argued that independence and autonomy are marked as masculine and seen as the preserve of men whilst dependence is associated with the feminine (Leathwood 1999). Griffiths insists 'there is an odd masculine logic underlying the use of words like "independent"' (Griffiths 1995, p. 139) when, in a traditional family, it is women and children who are regarded as the dependants even though men are dependent on women for domestic and emotional support. Johnson, Lee and Green, in relation to PhD students, argue that pedagogies which emphasise the autonomous scholar ... may work for those who are 'always-already' in part shaped as the form of personhood that these practices seek to produce. But it does not necessarily work so effectively, at least, for a more diverse, mass population - particularly for that group, women, for whom the form of personhood currently required as an independent scholar potentially involves the negation of the values and modes of operating historically associated with their gendered identities (Johnson 2000, p. 145).

There are cultural issues here too. Somech (2000) notes how those in individualistic cultures are more likely to define themselves as independent, whereas those from collectivist cultures tend to emphasise the interdependent aspects of their selves. Sparrow's work on cross-cultural identities is also of interest. From 20 in-depth interviews she suggests that 'these examples provide the basis for questioning whether the concept of an individuated self, capable of free choice and action is not a construct of western languages and cultures' (Sparrow 2000, p. 178). She gives an example of a Vietnamese woman who says 'there is no such thing as "I" in Vietnamese ... we define ourselves in relationship' (Sparrow 2000, p. 185). In contrast, the western men in her study were more likely to express a sense of detachment and separateness.

Discourses of the independent learner also tend to assume a developmental model based on a linear path from dependence to independence, with the latter seen as an achieved, stable and enduring identity. Such developmental models have been criticised as gendered (Gilligan 1977), and post-structuralist theories have contributed to an understanding of identities not as fixed and stable, but as fluid and continually constructed. Yet this idea of independence as the ultimate goal is firmly rooted in much educational discourse, and, as will be seen, was articulated by some of the students in this study.

These ideas are explored with reference to data from a diverse group of first year undergraduates at an inner city university in the UK. The data was gathered in twelve focus groups with students from four different disciplinary areas in which the students discuss their experiences of being at university. The groups comprised 63 students in total, of whom over 50% were women, 43% were mature students on entry, and 66% were Black or Asian. Pseudonyms are used throughout.

Many of the students interviewed had expected that they would need to be more independent when they came to university than had been the case in school or college. One said 'Before I came into the university I had already been instructed on how you would be treated, like it would not be spoon-feeding like in school' (Meena, woman, under 21, Sri Lankan). Another spoke about her experience at college where teachers had regularly reminded students of forthcoming tests: 'I did realise that at university I'm sure they won't be doing that. They want us to be completely independent ... we should learn for ourselves' (Sorah, woman, under 21, Pakistani).

Being 'independent' clearly meant different things to different students. For some, it was a positive process about growing up and/or preparing for the 'real' world of work.

Rahia said 'I mean we're growing up so I mean, soon you're going to be out in the world' (woman, under 21, Bangladeshi). Several of the men felt it was about being prepared for work: When you've finished your degree and you're in a working environment, an employer is not going to want to chase you all the time. 'Mike did you do this? Mike, you need to do that.' When I'm working, I'm working independently and nobody's on my back to do stuff (Mike, man, under 21, Black Caribbean).

Managers don't always, or bosses or whatever you call them, do not always come to you and say you have to do this. They expect you to actually see for yourself (Paulo, man, 26-35, Brazilian).

Here Paulo articulates a concept of independence which is to do with thinking for yourself, taking the initiative and not having to rely on someone else to tell you what to do.

He compares his experience of studying at a private school in Brazil where 'we were guided and you had to do what you were told. You could not even think about not doing what you were told because you would not be accepted or even looked at'. He went on to explain how he had 'hated' university at first because he was used to being told what to do, but also saw the independence of university as positive and liberating.

This sense of independence as freedom was articulated by several of the men students in the focus groups: I feel university is a different environment. In high school you get a lot of dependency. There's a little bit of that in college. In university you got to be able to do your own thing in your own time (Leroy, man, 22-25, Black African).

I'm Mauritian so my parents are not here and I'm getting sponsored but all the money is coming from my parents in Mauritius so I am independent without being independent, but I do what I want. If I want to go to a lecture, I'm going to a lecture. If I want to sleep, I'll sleep (Ayar, man, under 21, Mauritian).

Ayar went on to explain how he was learning to be more responsible because he did not have his mother saying 'do this, do that, don't go out'. For some of the men in the study, independence was about having to remind themselves to do things or to meet forthcoming deadlines, rather than relying on a mother or teacher to check up on them, and this was something that several of these men found difficult.

Syed describes life at university : It's more independent; you do your own thing and if you want to do it, you do it. It's like if I want to do a coursework, I do it. If I don't want to do it, it's up to me, nobody will force me. I would rather have someone on my back, but this is university of course. I'm just saying what I would like ... At college I used to do my work straight away. Here, I've become lazy (Syed, man, under 21, Pakistani).

Mike, who clearly articulated the importance of being independent at work, also felt that such independence at university, where that was associated with having nobody to monitor his work, presented problems: In terms of university, you know you're going to get a better grade if someone was pushing you and always there to tell you 'you need to do this, you need to get this done, why isn't this done?' ... If someone's always pressuring you, you're more likely to keep up (Mike, man, under 21, Black Caribbean).

For some of the men, then, and especially young men, independence at university was about having the freedom to do what they wanted to do when they wanted to do it, but apparently associated with this was the less desirable aspect of having to take responsibility for themselves in terms of meeting deadlines and making sure they did the work.

For the women respondents, including the young women, this aspect of having to take responsibility for themselves did not appear to cause problems. Several commented upon it being different to what they had experienced in school or college, but this was not seen to present difficulties. For most of the women, the problem with independence was not about taking responsibility for themselves in this way, but instead it was the association of independence with being alone, and not having help and support form teaching staff: At college sometimes even out of classes we used to see our teachers and that, but now the only time I see my tutor or seminar tutor or whatever is in the lectures and seminars. Other than that, everything is done independently, research, everything. Even handing in coursework is like to a different office, not to the teacher or not in the class (Rahia, woman, under 21, Bangladeshi).

Yes the first year was terrible because we didn't do it like that in school. You did a little bit of independent work but at the same time there was like assistance from the teachers, but when I came here it was just like too much (Michelle, woman, under 21, Black African).

For many of the women, and for some men too, the lack of contact with, and support from, teaching staff was seen as a major problem, and the sense of aloneness that was felt to accompany independent learning was seriously impinging on some students' learning: I just feel lost. I've got lots of information but I just feel lost. And I sat down and I had a go at one essay but I just feel really I don't know. It's very independent work ... So maybe what I am missing, maybe I need tobe dependent more on somebody. I don't know, I have to figure out what it is (Heinke, woman, 26-35, White European).

When I came here, it's like I'm a person on my own. No one to talk to (Abedi, man, 36-45, Black African).

Despite the association for many of these students of independence with aloneness and lack of support, most of the women and many men in this study did not regard the need for help and support as incompatible with being an independent learner. Some articulated a developmental discourse with more help and support needed at the beginning to enable them to develop into independent learners: I like it [independent learning] but I think there just needs to be a little bit more help, especially in the first year because a lot of people come from different backgrounds and you do need to adjust or they do need to make you a little bit independent, but at the same time give you help and support as well. In the first year we didn't know what to expect about these exams and stuff and we were just like put in at the deep end (Melmia, woman, under 21, Black Caribbean).

As Melmia noted, a lot of students who come from different backgrounds need help to adjust to university life in this country. The ideal of the 'always already' (Johnson 2000) independent learner was completely inappropriate for many of these students who did not have the cultural or material capital of white able-bodied middle class men students from the UK. This included women with children, working class students, those working long hours to survive financially, those from a different culture or country, students with an illness or disability, students new to the subject, and those who were shy or not very confident. Indeed, most students appeared to come into one or more of these categories.

Before I came here I was doing an access course at college. ... The only thing I felt was different was there was a lot of people I could run to and say I'm not sure.

Cos I'm partially deaf as well, so I miss a lot of things. I could run to them and say I'm not sure and they'd explain it to me. Whereas here you feel that that's your time slot and off you go at the end ... I felt I was losing out (Simon, man, 26-35, White Other).

When you're from a different country, I believe that you should have a special person to talk to because you are used to another system. (Lee, man, 22-25, White Other).

It's true because it's not like we have been here for so many years. They expect you to know everything about what you're supposed to be doing, whereas it's a totally different culture while in university than in the one outside (Michelle, woman, under 21, Black African).

We're supposed to know about it, but obviously no matter where you go in life, everybody's not going to know how things are. ... it's a good thing to know that the support is there. Whether or not you use it, that is something else but to know it's there then the problem does not remain or linger for such a long time (Barbara, woman, 36-45, Black Caribbean) Many of these students would not, I suspect, feel that they met the ideal of the self-contained individual working in splendid isolation. Whilst independence was often regarded as necessary or desirable, the need for help and support was not seen to contradict this and was sometimes expressed as a right, with 'student as consumer' discourses evident on occasion. Yet for some, support was articulated as a transitory need, something that they would be able to move beyond as they became confident in their subject areas.

The developmental discourse, with its emphasis on individual achievement of the ultimate 'independent' identity, effectively 'others' those students who do not live up to this ideal. When independence (associated with men) is eulogised, dependence, (association with women), is denigrated. For many of the young students in this study, however, it is men who appear dependent on others (teachers, mothers) to remind them to do things, and young women who are happy to be independent in these terms. I suspect that many of us with experience of teaching and/or parenting young men would want to continue to emphasise the importance of independence when it is used in this sense.

Griffiths and Smith (1989), though, have emphasised the ubiquitousness and value of dependence in the majority of people's lives, both men as well as women. Are we not also doing our students a disservice if we lead them to believe that they should not be dependent on anyone in their future working lives? Despite the emphasis on group work in some aspects of the curriculum, we are in danger of making students think that independence is the only valid goal.

In this paper I have suggested that the notion of the independent learner is gendered and inappropriate for the majority of students. In many ways, 'independence' is a masculinist myth; what suits (some) men is defined as the ideal that all should be striving for, whilst men's dependence on others remains hidden.

Brookfield wants to reclaim self-directed learning 'as an inherently emancipatory idea, an oppositional, counter hegemonic force' (Brookfield 1999, p. 3). Hughes renames SDL as 'self dire-(e)cted learning' and argues: 'given the implications of the individualist self in self-directed learning, and given its aura of detachment and masculinity, might it be more fruitful to rename - and reconfigure - a form of learning which has all that Stephen (Brookfield) indicates we need in terms of emancipatory ideals and critical consciousness?' (Hughes 1999, p. 8).Griffiths insists that we can re-define independence and autonomy to include: ...the freedom to be yourself, to speak for yourself, to determine your own life, in the knowledge that a worthwhile life includes cultural and social bonds, and in the knowledge that such bonds will last during periods of relative need for the help of others and relative responsibility to meet the needs of others (Griffiths 1995, p.139).

She also articulates the mutual dependence of personal and collective change, something that stands in sharp contrast to the current emphasis on the individual independent learner and which, I would suggest, is much more likely to facility the emancipatory and critical ideals that Brookfield articulates.

Blackmore has noted how 'the under-resourcing of teaching has meant a shift from "fat" to "lean-and-mean" pedagogies, with reduced tutorials, increased tutorial size, and less student contact' (Blackmore1997, p. 92). It is, I suggest, no coincidence that a renewed valorisation of the independent learner is being promulgated at this time. The dominance of the notion of the (male, white, middle class, able-bodied and domestically unencumbered) independent individual is also implicated in the disregard shown for women with childcare responsibilities in, for example, the timetabling of classes - something that several women I interviewed commented upon. Griffiths and Smith also point to how ironic it is that independence is called for now. They ask: 'Isn't the independently-minded citizen a threat to the power of the state, to its capacity to transform individuals into pulses in the common will? Actually emphasis on independence is a way of breaking down that far more dangerous thing, community' (Griffiths and Smith 1989, p.287, stress in original).

We need, then, a concept which emphasises interdependence rather than independence, that embraces collectivity as well as (re-defined) autonomy, and that includes the liberatory and counter-hegemonic ideals of adult education pedagogy. Like Hughes (1999), I do not have the answer, but perhaps collectively we can begin to work towards one.

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Brookfield, S. (1999) 'Reclaiming and Problematising Selfdirected Learning as a Space for Critical Adult Education' in Merrill, B.(ed.) 29th Annual SCUTREA Conference. University of Warwick: Department of Continuing Education.

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This document was added to the Education-line database on 25 February 2003