Shelleyann Scott
Curtin University of Technology, Australia

Paper presented at SCUTREA, 33^rd annual conference, University of Wales, Bangor, 1-3 July, 2003

Western Australia, similar to most Western countries, has undergone considerable reform within the educational system. These reforms have been in relation to the management of schools and in the curriculum offered to students. Even though there has been rolling educational reform over the past twenty years, the pace of change appears to increasing along with the level of complexity. Tangentially over the same period, Western Australia has experienced an influx of refugees and other immigrants which has created a distinctly multicultural community. These changes and reforms have impacted on teachers and administrators in relation to their working lives, classroom environments, career management, and teaching and professional development practices. This paper explores gender differences in secondary teachers’ experiences and rationales for participation in professional development activities within this environment of administrative and curriculum reform.

Historically, education has been an easy target for political reform as a social institution that accepts the mantle of responsibility for solving societal problems. Reform is a global phenomenon with Western Australia not being quite isolated enough to escape. The early 1980s saw an escalation in public criticism of the Australian educational sector and record levels of unemployment, particularly among the young members of the community. Susan Robertson identified the intention and commitment to transform the public sector precipitated devolution in decision-making and other structures. Curiously, the rationale for journeying into these new forms of management is usually touted to be for increasing student achievement and/or performance .

When devolution was introduced it created massive changes and concern was expressed that it entailed the acceptance of greater responsibility with less power and ‘excessive attention to outcomes as opposed to processes’ . ‘Massive cuts’ in the education budget endorsed the perception that these reforms were ‘cost-cutting’ exercises. Industrial action aimed at securing wage increases to compensate teachers for increased administrative duties ensued. The dispute was eventually resolved; unfortunately, teaching morale was a casualty with 50% of teachers reporting they would ‘not willingly choose to work in the profession again’ .

Davies identified a potential danger in the refocusing of teachers’ priorities to management activities rather than the core business of teaching and learning, a concern strongly reiterated by a Ministerial Task Force . Davies stated when …

new teachers and those looking towards the furtherance of their career see that the ‘top’ jobs involve management activity, then it is hardly surprising that staffroom conversation is about management, systems and procedures, rather than about the excitement of the last lesson and the looking forward to the next .

Additionally, adjusting to the ‘new system of power … required new skills and time’ .

Similar to any change situation, teachers and administrators have adjusted and some positive outcomes have emerged. Kowalski’s study involving principals found that the majority (88%) agreed that site-based management is a ‘sound concept for school governance … [it] encourages teachers to assume higher levels of responsibility … [and] change was more likely to occur at the school level than at district or state level’. Weiss found that teachers involved in the decision-making processes within their schools felt more professional and enjoyed the increased authority and collegiality. Robertson and Soucek’s Western Australian-based study found teachers did not romanticise previous bureaucratic structures, disliked the ‘excessive rules, imposed rigidities, the lack of opportunity for change, inflexible resourcing and staffing boundaries, the promotion by seniority and an irrelevant curriculum’. Many indicated that there was a need for change and they were happy to embrace it; even though the reforms had altered the school environment within which they worked. Even though devolution of decision-making and site-based management appears to support and promote educational reform, there is little evidence that there is any positive effect on student learning .

Coupled with the administrative and managerial reform was curriculum and pedagogical reform. During the late 80s early 90s, focus was shifted from modularised forms of curriculum to a more systematic approach. Eventually, a set of shared learning outcomes was defined in the National Profiles and Curriculum Statements in Australia . They were the closest Australia has come to developing a national curriculum. The outcomes were formulated in eight key learning areas with a number of strands to each. Each strand has eight levels and within each level, a series of outcome statements. Initial response from teachers was that this new curriculum approach was daunting. All of the states developed their own version of the national statements, however, the national profiles formed the ‘central basis for outcome-based teaching and learning’ .

In 1998 the Curriculum Framework document (Curriculum Council of Western Australia 1998) was legislated as the required curriculum for all Western Australian schools. This framework necessitated review and change to the content, pedagogical and assessment practices in education from K-12. Likewise this curriculum reform has resulted in considerable upheaval, discomfort and frustration by teachers who have been worn down by too much and too fast change.

Dinham identified that above all, the impact of reform initiatives has been the ‘increased politicisation’ of education. He felt the ‘connotation of "reform" is that schools and teachers are deficient and that educational systems are in need of urgent and major overhaul’ (p.2). Teachers are easy targets as the readily identifiable tools for the implementation of change and as a result professional development is perceived as all that is required to ensure the success of the reform(s) .

John Goodlad described an ‘input-output model’ that holds considerable ‘political appeal’ for those who wish to be credited with implementing educational reform. The model works on the assumption that teacher development will immediately and automatically result in increased student performance in a ‘neatly linear’ manner. Again this model is based upon the basic concept that the teacher is deficit in skills or knowledge, thereby adversely affecting students’ performance . He indicated that even though this model has not proved to be successful in the past it continues to be employed as ‘it serves well the interests of those who seek simplicity in matters educational’ (p.637). He posited that the model is ‘bankrupt’ when examining schools, as they are ‘complex cultures’.

Theoretical understandings about professional development have evolved over the past twenty years with the initial focus on providing teachers with increased skills and knowledge with the assumption that it would automatically translate into increased learning outcomes for students (Brandt and associates 1994). Research into the effectiveness of professional development has shifted educational understanding to reflect the need for a more holistic approach. This includes ensuring professional development activities encompass sound adult learning principles; constructivist dimensions in teachers’ learning; collaborative and collegial discussions, reflection, and experimentation focused on increasing students’ learning; and the inclusion of organisational goals (Joyce & Showers 1995; Sparks & Hirsh 1997; Darling-Hammond 1998; Lieberman & Miller 2000).

This study was largely interpretative due to the emphasis being on the experiences and perspectives of the participants. Both quantitative and qualitative data were collected. Quantitative data included the number of professional development programs attended, number of hours engaged in professional development, average effectiveness, demographic information, and some descriptive statistics. Qualitative data involved teachers’ experiences, perceptions, opinions, criteria for rating of effectiveness, and rationale for participation in professional development. This paper mainly reports qualitative findings with some background statistical data.

All Western Australian Government secondary schools were randomly sampled and from that process 15 rural and 24 metropolitan schools were selected. Contact was made with teachers in the sampled schools to invite their participation. Twenty two teachers responded (response rate of 67%) from ten of the rural schools. Likewise, 28 teachers agreed to participate (response rate of 42%) from the 24 selected metropolitan schools. Of the 50 teachers, 29 (58%) were male and 21 (42%) female. The highest proportion of the sample (44%) were in the 7-18 years of experience range, with 22% in the 19-30, 10% in both the 2-3 and 4-6 years of experience range, and 8% and 6% respectively at the two ends of the continuum, in < 1 year and 30 years and onward categories. Very few respondents (3) were self-selected, with most agreeing to participate only after being contacted by the researcher in a follow-up call, discussing the proposed outcomes of the research, perceiving the value of their feedback and having obtained reassurance of confidentiality and anonymity.

In-depth semi-structured telephone interviews were conducted with the 50 teachers who were widely distributed across the state (2,527,621 km² ). Interviews were conducted using a loud speaker phone, which enabled the recording of responses (only with teachers’ agreement). Interview duration ranged from 1 to 3˝ hours, averaging at 2 hours. Data were fully transcribed and processed and analysed using a combined software approach using MS Access, Excel and Word and SPSS. Data were analysed according to both research-based and emergent themes.

The schedule was structured to collect information about teachers’ professional development experiences over the previous 18 months. It explored each program or activity in-depth including details of the program and the teachers’ perceptions of it. Teachers’ perspectives of the financial arrangements for professional development were also sought. Information was sought on teachers’ perceptions of an employer-initiated professional development trial. Rural teachers’ views on the quality, access, availability and any other issues related to professional development were ascertained.

The data were examined from a variety of perspectives within this study and this article outlines only one of those coding themes, that of teachers’ choice in relation to professional development. The three categories that emerged were ‘personal choice’ (including professional association activities, further studies, self-directed where teachers perceived further learning to have occurred, professional reading, and collaborative activities), ‘mandated’ (were programs that had been required by their employer or superior within the school and usually undertaken during the school day), and ‘obligated’ (were described as ‘sort of’ required to do a professional development program but were frequently happy to participate for a range of reasons, such as, a representative was needed, it wouldn’t look good to superiors if they did not participate, they had some expertise and could provide an informed perspective).

The majority of teachers’ hours (69% of total hours – 13, 584 hours over the 18 months or 60 working weeks) of professional development were engaged in personal choice activities. One fifth (20% - 4, 016 hours) of the total hours were spent in professional development teachers’ felt obliged to attend and 11% (2, 213 hours) of the total was in mandated professional development .

Curiously, a theme that crossed all three of these ‘choice’ categories was programs that provided teachers with knowledge and/or skills to manage, teach or support students (and occasionally parents) with specific problems/needs. These courses included developing the literacy levels of local and English as a Second Language students, identifying ‘students at risk’ and counselling skills for troubled students (for example students who were traumatised refugees, victims of sexual abuse, who had drug dependency problems), Indigenous education awareness (this was mandated and proscribed by the employer), managing student behaviour and students with specific disorders, for example, Attention Deficit Hyperactive Disorder, and Asperger’s syndrome. Approximately, 20% of programs across the three categories of choice were reported as relating to specific problems with students although this percentage may have been higher as frequently teachers reported their professional development under different categories and the ‘students at risk’ theme emerged later.

In this study, similarities in teachers’ attitudes and perceptions related to professional development did appear to be gender related or associated. Male teachers within the sample were generally less positive about professional development than females. In contrast to Robertson’s description of female teachers’ lack of involvement in school related professional development activities, this current study found the female teachers to be heavily involved in professional development, expressing interest and professional commitment as the rationale for their participation.

An interesting aspect of this study was that female teachers more frequently reported interest and attendance at programs designed to target students with particular needs and on school functioning in contrast with their male colleagues. Women were concerned with the welfare of their students per se, and were highly motivated to work with, and for the interests of students who were perceived to be at risk or disadvantaged. This finding may initially infer that male teachers were less caring which was not the case; however, males were less vehement about supporting students at risk and did not report accessing these types of professional development as frequently as females.

Males in this study tended to be more openly interested in career advancement activities and overtly selected professional development that would provide promotional advantages. Surprisingly, the early career males were very outspoken on matters related to governance and demonstrated a sophisticated perspective in planning their career advancement. They were targeting professional development such as, information technology infrastructure and management of school technology systems, how to build and write exemplary curriculum vitae, leadership skills, specific train-the-trainer programs, and a variety of school committee work which enabled them to demonstrate their leadership skills. This was intriguing as the sample comprised more female Heads of Department and Teachers in Charge, although this demographic was not representative of secondary teachers across the state, where there are more males in substantive promotional positions (. Even though there were more female superordinates in the sample, many of these were not substantive so this raises the question of why wasn’t their focus on consolidating their promotional position.

Robertson proposed that females continued to ‘bear disproportionate responsibility for home and childcare’ which may result in a lack of participation in professional development activities and yet curiously, in this current study, it was males in the 30-45 age group who more frequently mentioned concerns related to childcare and the demands of family commitments. Some of this group appeared to be juggling young families, needs of working partners and experienced difficulty in participating in out-of-hours professional development. This was an intriguing finding that led the researcher to conjecture possible reasons for an apparent gender difference such as, could this be reflecting the shift in society where many families have two working parents or single working parents juggling the demands of parenting alone? With many marrying and having their families later in life, could this explain why some of the more mature males in this study reported the demands of young families? and/or could the number of people who are entering second relationships/marriages, second families along with an increased expectation that both males and females will shoulder the family responsibilities be affecting males’ capacity to engage in out-of-hours professional development?

Overall, males in this study generally were more definite and emphatic regarding their perceptions. Female teachers appeared to be either more accepting or attempted to present a more balanced perspective. Although women tended to display less promotional drive, it may have been interesting to know whether this was due to the press of family commitments, as proposed by Robertson (1992), whether they generally were less personally driven with promotion in view or whether they were already at a satisfactory promotional level. No difference was found in the level of professional commitment demonstrated in either gender, although the few teachers (3) who displayed Huberman’s (1992) ‘disenchantment’ and ‘stocktaking’ characteristics were male.

This study found there were gender associated differences in teachers’ perspectives and experiences in relation to professional development in this study. They were interpreting their lifelong learning goals in different ways, with women more orientated towards the classroom and students, and maintaining high levels of professionalism. Likewise, males were concerned with professionalism but also perceived lifelong learning as a means to secure their career advancement and were more overt about these intentions.

It may be conjectured that these differences in perspective are indicative of the changing educational and societal environment in which teachers are working. It also reflects teachers’ coping mechanisms in an ever changing educational situation. The engagement with professional development that targeted students with special needs/problems, mirrors the changes in policy, specifically the Students at Educational Risk and Curriculum Framework policies. The Curriculum Framework has had a significant impact whereby teachers are acutely aware that students’ learning is the focus (as opposed to teaching) wherein the policy indicates all students will achieve the outcomes by the completion of their schooling. Similarly, male teachers’ interest in career management and advancement illustrates the impact the changes in educational decision-making and administrative processes have had on teachers. This finding endorses Robertson and Soucek’s findings (Robertson 1993), that teachers were ‘embracing’ the changes and ensuring their place in the new administrative system.

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This document was added to the Education-line database on 27 June 2003