Towards a smooth transition from preschool to primary school in Iceland

Jóhanna Einarsdóttir
Iceland University of Education, e-mail: joein@khi.is 

Paper presented at the British Educational Research Association Annual Conference, Heriot-Watt University, Edinburgh, 
11-13 September 2003

Differences in practices of preschools and primary schools in various countries have been noted by several scholars (e.g. Broström, 2002; Broström & Wagner, 2003; Buchanan, Burts, Bidner, White, & Charlesworth, 1998; Dahlberg and Taguchi, 1994; Einarsdóttir 2003a; Fabian & Dunlop, 2002; File & Gullo, 2002; Goldstein, 1997; Griebel & Niesel, 2002; Goffin, 1989; Hansen, 2002; Margetts, 2002; Neuman, 2002). These differences have been attributed to different institutional histories and traditions, guiding philosophies, cultures and contexts. This is also the case in Iceland where preschools were originary designed initially for poor children, focusing mainly on caregiving, but the primary schools, which were designed for all children, focused on instruction. The physical structure of these institutions is different. Primary schools today are often part of big compulsory schools, but the preschools are smaller institutions. The organization of preschools and primary schools is generally different as well. Preschools usually have mixed-age groupings, but in the primary school, children are grouped by age. The structure of the preschool day is usually more flexible and not divided by subjects as is the primary school day. There are usually more children in each group, with fewer adults in the primary school.

In Iceland today, preschool education is intended for children under six years old. Approximately 87% of children ages 3-5 and almost all 5 year olds attend preschools (Hagstofa Íslands, 2002). Children start compulsory school in the fall of the year they turn 6 years old. Although preschools are not compulsory, both preschools and primary schools in Iceland are defined as educational institutions under the supervision of the Ministry of Education, which publishes National curricula for these school levels.

According to current laws, the general aims of preschools and primary schools are in many ways similar. Both institutions should prepare children for a life in a democratic society, encourage tolerance and broadmindedness, instill Christian ethics, help children learn democratic cooperation and independence, and cooperate with homes and other school levels. The difference lies in the fact that primary schools stress knowledge, skills, and evaluation, while preschools emphasize care, a healthy environment, and play that occur at the preschool level (Lög um grunnskóla no. 66/1995; Lög um leikskóla no 78/1994).

The general aims of the two National Curriculum Guidelines are also similar, but there is a big gap when it comes to putting the guidelines into practice. In accordance with the law, the preschool guide emphasizes development, play, creative activities, life skills, daily routines, and themes. The primary school curriculum guide, on the other hand, focuses mainly on the teaching of different subjects (Menntamálaráðuneytið, 1999a, 1999b).

Research on early childhood education in Iceland reveals the different practices of preschools and primary schools. Play and the child's needs are in the foreground in preschools, but subjects and teaching methods are the emphasis in primary schools (Einarsdóttir, 2003b, 2003c; Jóhannsdóttir, 1997). Icelandic preschool children seem to be aware of these differences and take them for granted (Einarsdóttir, 2002).

According to Icelandic laws on preschools and primary schools and the National Curriculum Guidelines for both school levels, preschools and primary schools should work to enhance continuity between school levels and establish cooperation. Many researchers have pointed out the importance of continuity in children's lives and reveal that children who have a difficult time adjusting to school from the beginning and who experience social, behavioral, or academic difficulties in the early years of schooling are more likely to continue experiencing these problems throughout their schooling (Kagan & Neuman, 1998; Ladd & Price, 1987; Love, Logue, Trudeau, & Thayer, 1992; Early, Pianta, & Cox, 1999; Margetts, 2002; Entwisle & Alexander, 1998).

Little is known about the ways preschools and primary schools in Iceland work on enhancing continuity between the schools levels. The purpose of the present study was to gain information on how preschool and primary school teachers work on establishing continuity and to learn about the transition practices they use. Further, the study aimed to discover the practices that preschool and primary school teachers see as important and the barriers they report in implementing these practices. Furthermore, the study examined the teachers' views on problems they see children have when entering primary school and compared the different views of preschool- and elementary school teachers. The study has practical contributions for policy making on cooperation between the school levels and development of practices for connecting preschools and primary schools. Further for the education of these different groups of teachers.

The literature reveals different views on this period. Some authors see the transition from preschool to primary school as an important challenge for children and that their successful passage will bring with it the opportunity for children to grow and learn and equip them to be more resilient in the future, whereas others place emphasis on continuity in children's lives and education (Dunlop & Fabian, 2002; Broström & Wagner, 2003).

Despite different definitions and views, the need for transition practices of some sort is recognized (Kagan & Neuman, 1998). Some view transitions as a set of onetime activities undertaken by children, families, and programs at the end of the year (e.g. transferred records about children, visits by children to the new school). Others guided by Bronfenbrenner's ecological systems theory see transitions as ongoing efforts to create linkages between children's families, programs, and communities (Broström & Wagner, 2003; Dunlop & Fabian, 2002; Griebel & Niesel, Mangione & Speth, 1998; 2002; Pianta, Kraft-Sayre, Rimm-Kaufman, Gercke & Higgins, 2001; Rimm-Kaufman & Pianta, 2000; Pianta & Walsh, 1996; Pianta, Rimm-Kaufman, & Cox, 1999). Still others regard transition as continuity between programs and emphasize greater similarities between preschool and primary school and a mutual perspective of educators in preschools and primary schools. For instance, Dahlberg og Taguchi (1994) encourage continuity between preschools and primary schools by working towards a common vision of these institutions: (1) for the child, as co-constructer of knowledge, identity, and culture, (2) for the role of the teacher, (3) and for the pedagogical practice. Similarly, Kagan (1991) has proposed that the content of continuity has three major properties: The first is philosophical property, or underlying values and beliefs. Second is continuity in pedagogy, which means that the content and process of instruction and disciplinary principles must remain along similar lines. Finally, Kagan proposes structural continuity, which means that the different components of the early childhood structure should be acknowledged and that educators should strive for agreement.

Dunlop and Fabian (2002) propose that successful transition, continuity, and progression are key elements in school success. Transition means the passage from one place, stage, state, style, or subject to another over time. Continuity means that the demands which children encounter need to be matched by continuous changes rather than abrupt, where connections are emphasized, and the time sequence is uninterrupted. Progression implies an onward motion, an integration of the previous into the present. Broström (2002) emphasizes continuity in children's lives as they move from preschool to primary school. He highlights school "ready preschools" that help children become school ready by addressing the primary school's needs, and "child ready schools" that address children's needs.

Studies have been conducted on the transition to kindergarten and primary school and the transition activities teachers use to prepare children for the challenges and demands they will face at the new level.

Results from recent research in the United States show that kindergarten teachers reported that 52% of children experience successful entry into kindergarten, whereas 32% of children experience moderately successful entries characterized by some problems, and 16% experience difficult entries characterized by serious concerns or many problems. Over one third of the teachers reported that about half the class or more entered kindergarten with specific problems. The most common problems reported were difficulty following directions, lack of academic skills, disorganized home environments, and difficulty working independently (Rimm-Kaufman, Pianta and Cox, 2000). Another US study on the transition from preschool to kindergarten also shows that school personnel believe that most children do not have much difficulty adjusting to kindergarten in general, but problems do occur in adjusting to the academic demands of kindergarten (Love, Logue, Trudeau, & Thayer, 1992).

The results from a survey in the US reveals that use of some practices related to the transition into kindergarten were nearly universal (Pianta, Cox, Taylor, & Early, 1999). The most frequently reported practices were those that take place after the start of school and/or those that involve low-intensity, generic contact such as flyers, brochures, and group open houses. The most frequently reported practice, talking with the child's parent after school starts, was employed by 95% of the sample. Practices that involve direct contact with children or families were among the least frequently reported, as were practices that involve contacting children or families before the start of school. The practices that were most frequently reported to be "a good idea" were talking with parents after school starts, reading written records about children's progress, and sending parents a letter either after or before school starts.

Broström's (2002) study on transition practices in Denmark show that the most frequently reported practices that were considered to be good ideas by preschool teachers, primary school teachers and kindergarten class teachers were: the school invites the child to visit the class before school starts, the kindergarten teachers and children visit the kindergarten class (or the leisure time center) before school starts, and the higher level teacher has some period of teaching time in the kindergarten class. Practices that involved home visits to the children were among the least frequently reported as good ideas. The results reveal some hesitation on part of the participants regarding collaboration on curriculum and teaching methods. Only 60% of the participants judged practices that had to do with coordination of the curriculum or the teaching to be good ideas. Preschool teachers were less positive about transition activities involving reading each other's documents, having shared meetings on educational practices, and coordination of the curriculum. However, they assigned a high priority to having shared meetings with preschools, kindergarten classes, and parents before school started.

Transition strategies designed to overcome discontinuities and prepare children for the challenges and demands of school have been developed. Effective transition programs link schools, families, and communities in positive and supportive relationships to enhance young children's well being and education. These programs have been seen as possessing these common elements (Fabian, 2000; Margetts, 2002; Ramey & Ramey, 1999): Continuity of educational programs including continuity in curricula and expectations, communication between preschools and primary schools, preparation of children for the change both before and after the transition period, informed and involved parents, and continuity of peers. These practices are based on the belief that children's transition to school will be easier when the programs and settings are similar, children are familiar with the new setting and the other children, parents are informed about the new school, and teachers have information about the children and the program in the other setting.

 survey was conducted among early childhood teachers in Reykjavík. A questionnaire developed by Pianta and colleagues was translated and adapted for use with Icelandic preschool and primary school teachers (National Center for Early Development and Learning, 1996; Pianta, Cox, Taylor, & Early, 1999). The questionnaire was translated by two independent translators and piloted on a group of early childhood educators. The Danish version of the questionnaire developed by Broström was also taken into consideration when preparing the Icelandic questionnaire (Broström, 2002). Ultimately two versions were constructed, one for the preschool teachers, and one for the first grade teachers.

The questionnaire consisted of 32 similar questions for both groups, and eighteen extra questions for the first grade teachers. The questionnaire started with questions on background information on the schools and the participating teachers, followed by questions on the teachers' views on children's readiness for school. They were asked eleven questions on the typical number of children that have problems when entering first grade. The teachers were asked to identify in which areas the problems occurred: for example, in academic skills, in social skills, or in following directions. The questionnaire also consisted of questions on transition practices. Sixteen questions related to transition practices were included. These included, for instance, if written records of children's past experiences or status went with them to the primary school, or if regular meetings among preschool and primary school teachers to discuss goals and opportunities for continuity in children's education were held. The teachers were asked to identify which of the sixteen transition practices they had used that particular year with their class or individual children and to judge whether each practice was a "good idea." They were also asked about the barriers they found in implementing the transition practices. The additional questions for the first grade teachers were on the transition practices used in first grade to ease children's adjustment to school, that is, what they did with the new children who arrived in their class each year. For example, first grade teachers were asked to note if they sent a letter to the parents, a flyer, or an informational brochure before or after school started.

All preschools and compulsory schools in Reykjavík that had first grade classrooms were asked to participate in the study. A letter explaining the study and its importance was sent to the preschool directors, and they were asked to deliver the questionnaire, a cover letter, and a postage-paid envelope to use in returning the competed questionnaire to the preschool teachers who were working with the oldest children. In total, 270 lists were sent to 72 preschools. The number of lists sent out may, however, be misleading since it was not known in advance how may preschool teachers were working with the oldest children, and since only around 30% of preschool staff is educated as preschool teachers. Since the educated preschool teachers were the ones who were asked to participate, the actual number of possible participants was probably much lower. In the same manner, the primary school directors were sent the questionnaire to give to the first grade teachers. The questionnaire was sent to 31 primary schools. Seventy-six lists were sent out to first grade teachers. Two weeks after the questionnaires were mailed, a reminder letter was mailed to those schools that had not returned the questionnaire, ten days later the researcher phoned those schools that had not yet returned the questionnaires, and a week after that another reminder letter was mailed to unresponsive schools.

Eventually, 62 primary school teachers in 28 schools returned the questionnaire. That means that lists came back from 90.3% of the schools. One hundred and six preschool teachers in 64 preschools returned the questionnaire. That means that lists came back from 88.8% of the preschools.

The participants were asked to judge approximately what percentage of the children who are leaving preschool and entering first grade have (1) a very successful entry into first grade, with virtually no problems, (2) a moderately successful entry, with some minor problems, and (3) a difficult or very difficult entry, with serious concerns or many problems.

Most of the participants reported that 70% or more of the children would not have problems in starting school. Twenty-six percent of the primary school teachers and 15% of the preschool teachers reported that 30% or less would have some problems in starting school. Primary school teachers working in bigger schools reported more frequently that children had problems in starting school (see figure 1).

When asked about the most common areas of difficulties for children when they enter first grade, the highest in prevalence for both preschool and primary school teachers were "Difficulty following directions," "Difficulty working independently," and "Difficulty working as a part of a group." The lowest in prevalence were "Too short time in preschool" and "Immaturity." Inspection of Table 1 reveals that more primary school teachers than preschool teachers reported that children have some difficulties in specific areas when entering first grade. For instance, 23% of primary school teachers reported that half of the children or more had difficulties following directions, but only 4% of the preschool teachers reported this finding. Also 18% of primary school teachers reported that half of the children or more had difficulties working as a part of a group, while only 1% of preschool teachers reported this. (see table 1)

Primary school teachers who taught in large classes reported more often that children had difficulties in specific areas. Figure 2 reveals that in classes where there were more than 21 children, the teachers reported that approximately 25-50% of them had difficulties in following directions.

Preschool teachers who were working in large classrooms with 26 children or more reported more frequently that they found children were having difficulties working as a part of a group. Figure 3 displays that approximately 45% of those preschool teachers found that 25-50% of the children had difficulties working in a group.

The results of the survey show that the use of some practices related to aiding the transition from preschool to primary school were universal. The participants were asked to identify with sixteen transition practices. Table 2 presents information on the percentage of preschool and primary school teachers who reported that they used the sixteen transition practices. Inspection of Table 2 reveals that the most commonly used transitional practice reported by both preschool and primary school teachers as being used with all children was a visit by preschool teachers and children to the primary school prior to the start of the new school year. The second most common transition practice used with all children was an invitation from the primary school for the preschool children to participate in events in the primary school. The least mentioned practices were preschool teachers and primary school teachers having a shared meeting with parents, and preschool teachers following the children to first grade and teaching some lessons there. A number of participants reported that for certain groups of children, such as children with special needs, written records about their experiences and status followed them into the primary school, and preschool and primary school teachers held meetings to discuss these individuals.

The results of the study show that the participants in general expressed a positive attitude toward transition activities. Table 3 presents information on the percentage of preschool and primary school teachers who endorsed each of the sixteen transition practices as a "good idea" and the percentage of teachers who thought the practice was a good idea, but that there were barriers to its implementation. The table reveals that at least half of the preschool and primary school teachers thought most of the transition practices were good ideas.

The most often mentioned good practice for both preschool and primary school teachers was the visit by preschool children and their teachers to the primary school prior to school start. The second most common mentioned good practice mentioned by the preschool teachers was shared meetings of preschool and primary school teachers to discuss education and continuity in children's education. These shared meetings were also frequently mentioned by the primary school teachers, but more of them saw them as difficult to implement. A large portion of the preschool teachers reported that they thought visits by the preschool teachers to the primary school to observe the educational practice to be a good practice, and "The primary school invites the preschool children to participate in events in the primary school". This participation in events was also seen as important by the primary school teachers, although more of them reported that "Meetings of preschool teachers and primary school teachers about individual children's life and development" and "Written records about individual children's experiences and status follow them to the primary school" were important. Fewer preschool teachers reported the generation of written records to be important. The least endorsed practice mentioned by both preschool and primary school teachers was, "The preschool teacher follows the children to first grade, and teaches some lessons there," but some others found this to be important, but difficult to implement.

The transition activities that were most frequently reported as being used all serve the purpose of easing the transition from preschool to primary school by introducing the primary school to the preschool children. There were not much emphasis on coordinating the pedagogy of these two institutions. Only 18% of the participating primary school teachers and 33.7% of the preschool teachers reported that they have been working on coordinating the curriculum and teaching between preschool and primary school. Approximately 19% of the teachers reported that they held shared meetings to discuss education and continuity in children's education. However, many of the participants considered this to be a good idea. It is also of interest to note the different emphasis preschool and primary school teachers placed on the importance of preschools reporting and providing the primary school with information on individual children.

In addition to these sixteen transitions practices, the primary school teachers were asked to identify with eighteen transition practices used to ease children's adjustments to school. The results of the study show that almost all the participants reported that they used some type of practices to facilitate the adjustment of children to school. Table 4 shows the percentage of primary school teachers who reported that they used the eighteen practices for all children, for a limited number of children, or not at all. All participants reported that the most commonly used practice used with all children was: "An informational meeting held for all parents after school starts," . "A meeting with child and family before school starts," was the second most common practice, and the third was a letter to parents before school started. The least mentioned practice was: "A visit to the child's home," which no one reported doing, and "A call to the child's home after school starts." (see table 4)

The table reveals that the practices reported most frequently were also the ones that the participants felt were a "good idea." They were: "An informational meeting held for all parents after school starts," "A meeting with child and family before school starts," and "A letter to the child's parents before school starts." In addition, most of the participants reported, "A meeting with the child's parents after school starts," to be a good idea, and "An open house for parents and children after school starts" to be a good idea. In general, practices that involved contact with children and families in their homes were not commonly used and not considered good ideas.

Teaching Experience. When the teaching experience of the participants, their reported use of transition activities, and their view of transition activity usefulness was measured, the results revealed some differences among the primary school teachers. More young teachers reported that they held meeting with parents of individual children before school starts. Teachers with 4-9 years experience more often sent letters to parents before school started. More of the young primary school teachers found the idea of first graders visiting the preschool to share their experiences being a good idea and they also reported more that they more used this. The youngest teachers also found the practice of sending a letter to the child before school started to be a good idea. The youngest and the oldest teachers were the ones who found the idea of shared meetings of preschool teachers, primary school teachers and parents before school starts to be a good idea. The oldest primary school teachers were the least in favor of preschool teachers following the children to first grade and teaching there. More than 85% of those teachers who had 16 years or more teaching experience reported this as not necessary.

The results revealed a narrower difference among the teaching experiences of preschool teachers; however, it was found that the older preschool teachers found it more important that preschool teachers and primary teachers should visit each others classrooms than did the younger preschool teachers. Twenty-seven percent of beginning preschool teachers found this unnecessary, while only 0-4% of others report this as not necessary.

Class size. When the use of transition activities and judgment of their usefulness was compared to the class size of the first grade, teachers revealed some differences. Table 5 shows that teachers in medium size of classrooms reported more often that they visited the preschool to observe the educational practice, they also more often sent information brochure or letter to parents before school started, and they more often sent letters to the children before school started. Teachers in small classrooms, on the other hand, reported more often that they held meetings with individual parents after school started. Thus, teachers who had large classes with 21 or more children reported lower usage of these transition practices. (see table 5)

Figure 4 presents the barriers to the implementation of the transition practices that were considered good ideas as mentioned by the participants. The most often mentioned barriers were lack of funds or time. Eighty-nine percent of primary school teachers and 81% of preschool teachers reported lack of time was the reason why these transition practices had not been implemented. Sixty-five percent of preschool teachers and 57% of primary school teachers mentioned lack of funding being the main reason for not implementing the practices. Thirty one percent of the preschool teachers reported that the primary school teachers were not interested in cooperation. (see figure 4)

Summary and Discussion

The results of the study show that the participating preschool and first grade teachers believed that most children would not have problems in starting school. Primary school teachers working in bigger schools reported more frequently that children had some problems in starting school.

The most common areas of difficulties mentioned by both groups of teachers were working independently, working as a part of a group, and following directions. More primary school teachers than preschool teachers reported that children had some difficulties in these areas. Following directions and working independently were also commonly reported problems by American kindergarten teachers (Rimm-Kaufman, Pianta, & Cox, 2000). Lack of academic skills that the American teachers mentioned frequently was, however, not seen as a problem by many of the Icelandic participants.

Primary school teachers who had large classes reported more often that children had difficulties in specific areas. Similarly, preschool teachers who were working in large classrooms reported more frequently that they found children were having difficulties working as a part of a group.

The results show that the use of some transition practices was universal. The most commonly used transition practice reported by both preschool and first grade teachers were visits by preschool teachers and children to the primary school prior to the start of the new school year, and preschool children participating in events in the primary school. The least mentioned practices were to hold a shared meeting with preschool teachers, primary school teachers, and parents; and preschool teachers following the children to first grade and teaching some lessons there. The participants also felt other practices were good ideas even though they did not use them often. However, there was some difference between the two groups of teachers according to which practices they considered good ideas. Preschool teachers found shared meetings of preschool and primary school teachers to discuss education and continuity in children's education to be a good idea. This was also seen a good idea by many first grade teachers, but many of them found it difficult to implement. The preschool teachers also found visits by the preschool teacher to the primary school to observe the primary school educational practices to be a good idea. The results reveal different emphasis of preschool and primary school teachers on the importance of preschools reporting and providing the primary school with information on individual children. The first grade teachers preferred meetings with the preschool teachers about individual children and they also saw having written records about individual children follow them into the primary school as an important practice. Few preschool teachers saw this as important.

It is interesting to note that the transition activities that were most frequently reported as being used all serve the purpose of easing the transition from preschool to primary school by introducing the primary school to the preschool children. There has not been much emphasis on coordinating the pedagogy of these two institutions. However, many of the participants considered pedagogical coordination to be a good idea. Broström (2002) in his study in Denmark found that participants expressed an opposite view by not showing much interest in bridging the two educational traditions, although the Danish educators found the idea of a teacher team in kindergarten class made up by kindergarten classes and 1 and 2 grade teachers to be a good idea. This difference between Icelandic and Danish educators can be explained by difference in education of teachers in these countries. In Denmark education of preschool and primary school teachers is completely different and Danish preschool teachers do not want to be called teachers (Broström, 2003). In Denmark however there is a tradition of kindergarten classes serving as a springboard from preschool to school and 1^st grade teachers and kindergarten teachers working cooperatively there.

Almost all the first grade teachers reported that they used some type of practice to facilitate the adjustment of children to school. The most commonly used practices were informational meetings for parents after school starts and meeting with child and family before school starts. Practices that involved contact with children and families in their homes were hardly used and not considered good ideas. Thus, the teachers seemed to have clear boundaries between the school and the children's homes. These results are consistent with those of Pianta and colleagues (1999) on American kindergarten teachers. Aðalsteinsdóttir (2002) also found reluctance on the part of Icelandic teachers to contact older children in their homes.

Differences were found in the transition practices used according to: size of primary schools, teaching experience of both groups of teachers, and class size of the first grade classroom.

When teaching experience is examined, it is interesting to note that the young primary school teachers are more in favor of using transition activities. This might reflect more emphasis in the teacher education on transitions between school levels and the fact that preschool and primary school teachers now are educated in the same institution and go through some of the same program, which they did not do before.

It was also found that primary school teachers in large classrooms reported lower usage of transition practices. This lower usage combined with the fact that teachers in large classrooms also found that more children were having difficulties in specific areas might indicate that the teachers are overwhelmed by the sizes of their classes and the number of children they need to attend to and feel that they are not able to meet individual needs by being involved in transition practices.

The most often mentioned barriers for using transition practices were lack of funds and time. These results reveal that the participating preschool and primary school teachers did not see cooperation and facilitating transition between school levels as a part of their job. It is something extra that they have to do outside their working hours. That they do not get paid for and do not have time for it. Time was also reported by the American teachers (Pianta et al., 1999) and Danish educators (Broström, 2002) to be a barrier for implementing good ideas.

Cooperation between preschools and primary schools in Iceland has traditionally been limited; but in the last few years, this has been changing. According to National Curricula for both school levels, preschools and primary schools should work on continuity between school levels and establish cooperation. The results from this study indicate that preschool and primary school teachers are not working on coordinating the curriculum and teaching methods of these two institutions, although many of them considered it a good idea. Continuity of philosophy, pedagogy, and structure of the school levels does not seem to be in sight. On the other hand, the notion of providing smooth transitions between preschool and school seems to universal and valued by the participating teachers. The transition practices used were, however, mostly limited to onetime activities undertaken at the end of the preschool years, and the main purpose seemed to be to introduce the primary school to the preschool children. The results of the study indicate that an ecological perspective on the transition to kindergarten, characterized by interconnections among child, programs, home and community, has not taken hold.

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Table 1: Preschool- and Primary School Teachers' Judgments on the Percentage of Children who have Transition Problems.

Table 2: Percentage of preschool and primary school teachers reporting use of transition practices.

*These numbers are for certain groups of children, not all the children.

Table 3: Percentage of Preschool- and Primary School Teachers Judging Transition Practices to be a good Idea, 
good Idea but difficult to Implement or not Necessary

Table 4: Transition Practices used by Primary School Teachers to ease Children's Adjustment to School

Table 5: Class size and use of Transition Practices

c 2: 6,505; df:2; p £ 0,04
c 2: 10,569; df:2; p £ 0,005
c 2: 13,482; df:2; p £ 0,001

This document was added to the Education-line database on 28 October 2003