The role of and background to higher education in Germany

3.1 The Constitution safeguards freedom of research, teaching and study.

3.2 The Framework Act for Higher Education (1976) which defines the broad shape and structure of higher education, states that

‘according to their specific functions, the institutions of higher education shall contribute to the fostering and development of the sciences [broadly defined] and arts through research teaching and studies. They shall prepare students for occupations which require the application of scientific finding and scientific methods or creative ability in the artistic field’

3.4 The German university system is in many ways consciously modelled on the ideas of Wilhelm von Humboldt when founding the University of Berlin in 1810 and a number of those whom the visiting team met referred explicitly to his influence. In particular

• the importance of the combination of teaching and research;
• the freedom of science;
• university autonomy about the content and methods of teaching and research.

3.5 The adherence to these principles of some of those met during the visit has consciously been strengthened by their perception of the dangers to higher education and to Germany when the principles are breached. This applies both to the First and Second World Wars and to experience in the former German Democratic Republic. In this context, the sense of history in German higher education is perhaps more obvious in colouring thinking than in the United Kingdom.

3.6 In the German higher education system

• institutions are organised and funded on a federal basis, in which each of the 16 Lander (States) are largely responsible for the pattern and funding of higher education institutions in each Land. The share of funds between the Federal Government and the Lander varies for different activities: recurrent funding rests with the latter whilst research and capital funding is shared differently;
• participation in higher education is about 30 per cent of the age cohort, slightly lower in the eastern Lander;
• there appears to be no concept of part-time study although many students are working to pay their way.

3.7 In most Lander there is a binary system, with the majority of provision delivered by universities and Fachhochschulen (similar to Polytechnics), with some provision in specialised institutions (Art and Design; Nursing; Teacher Training); but in Baden Wurttemburg, there is a three-way structure with the additional feature of Berufsakademie where provision is made in a structured conjunction with employment.

University education
3.8 The main features of university education are:

• access to university is an entitlement under the Constitution to any student who has passed the qualifying examination, the Arbitur, usually taken on completion of the Gymnasium (Grammar school) education. Students with the Arbitur are entitled to study the subject of their choice at the institution of their choice. The only exceptions are certain subjects where there are restrictions on numbers such as medicine, where students may have to join a waiting list for several years in order to enrol. Universities may not select their students, for example, according to ability. About 70 per cent of university students attended a Gymnasium;
• tuition is organised on a semester basis, with two semesters a year;
• the first four semesters are fairly general, concluded by an examination (Grundstudium) which must be passed in order for the student to proceed. There is no interim qualification at this point which appears to have any currency with students or employers. On passing this examination, students choose the combination of subjects they wish to pursue in more depth and decide when they are ready to sit examinations for graduation;
• there appears to be relatively little contact between teachers and students, no obvious careers guidance either before enrolment or within universities; or information about sensible combinations of courses and their respective requirements, strengths and weaknesses. Most of the teaching is in the form of fairly traditional lectures. There appears to be no tradition of tutorials, group activities or other teaching/learning methods. Large numbers of students appear to change their course and drop out rates are understood to be high, about 30 per cent;
• the average length of study in 1992 was 7.1 semesters from matriculation to graduation and the average age on graduation was 28.8 (data for western Lander only);
• tuition is free, although Baden Wurttemburg has recently introduced an enrolment fee of DM 100 per semester (about £40) which is due to rise to DM 1,000 per semester (about £400). This money goes to the Land not to the institutions;
• all students are considered to be full-time, although a significant proportion work whilst studying (68 per cent in the west and 48 per cent in the east in 1994);
• university professors (the main grade of teacher) are civil servants with life tenure and a contractual requirement to teach eight units a week (a unit is typically 45 minutes);
• there is no obvious student union tradition for social, pastoral or political activity;
• unemployment amongst graduates is significantly below the national unemployment rate.

Fachhochschulen
3.9 The main features of education at the Fachhochschulen are:

• access to Fachhochschulen is also through passing the Arbitur or a specialist examination taken at secondary school. Increasing numbers of young people with the Arbitur are choosing to enrol at Fachhochschulen rather than at university. Some Fachhochschulen are able to select some of their students according to ability, and whether they are local. Here too some students wait for several years to join the course of their choice;
• courses are more vocationally oriented than at universities with an emphasis on technology. All include one or two semesters (out of six to eight) of an industrial placement and project, supervised by the Fachhochschulen. Students are expected to complete their courses in three to three and a half years. The average length of study was 5.2 semesters and the average age on graduation was 27.5 in 1992 (western Lander data);
• Fachhochschulen are limited in the range of subjects to be taught; their research has an applied focus; the objective is "how to turn a good theory into a product" (Rector, Fachhochschule, Stuttgart).
• the German Science Council (the Wissenschaftsrat) believes that the strengths of the Fachhochschulen are their practical and career orientation, strongly structured courses and shorter periods of study.

Berufsakadamie
3.10 The main features of education at the Berufsakadamie are:

• these have been created in Baden Wurttemburg in an initiative between the Land and several large industries, (including Bosch and Daimler Benz), apparently in an attempt to create shorter and more relevant higher education programmes. Some of the other Land are now developing similar institutions. The degrees are regarded as equivalent to those of Fachochshulen degrees. Information from the Land Ministry describes the aims as follows:
  ‘the novelty: employers share the responsibility with academics of designing, administering and controlling an institution of work-related higher learning’
  ‘the outcome: Berufsakadamie graduates enjoy above average job opportunities – not only with their training companies but on the labour market at large’
• these institutions are seen as an extension of the German dual system of vocational training at secondary school level;
• access to these institutions is determined by the industry: a student must first secure an offer from an employer before they can enrol at the institution, and must usually pass some selection tests as well as having a good academic record. Some 12,000 students are now enrolled and the institutions appear popular with students and employers: the best students (on the basis of Arbitur marks) are said to want to attend;
• course are organised over three years and involve two stages, basic education and training leading to a first qualification and then the final year of more specialised study. This is felt to address the problems of drop out and intermediate qualifications experienced at universities. The courses involve a mixture of on the job training/ education and coursework which are closely integrated and carefully structured;
• students are also employees, and receive a training allowance throughout the course.

3.11 Institutions appear to have clear missions, and a sense of their demarcation from one another. There is no consideration that this should change or, specifically, that the Fachhochschulen should become universities. The system appears to be very strongly regulated by Federal legislation.

3.12 Following reunification, work has been undertaken to absorb the institutions and system of the former Republic into the same pattern as in former West Germany, for example with special funds to renew staff and protect academic freedom, as well as to try to ensure that there is an appropriate regional distribution of institutions.

Access and participation

3.13 Institutions are clearly structured and employers appear to recruit from each kind of institution according to their requirements, without prejudice. The vocational routes appear to be valued by students and employers. The Constitutional entitlement to a place in higher education for those in possession of the Arbitur has led to a rapid increase in student numbers in recent years. In turn, this means that the numbers of those enrolled at universities considerably exceeds the number of places planned (although it is not clear how the real demands on the system are actually measured).

3.14 German higher education has expanded at an unprecedented rate over the last thirty years. The system has increased in size by about three hundred per cent since the 1960s, to include over 300 universities and other institutions publicly funded, with 1,800,000 students and 62 privately funded institutions, with 300,000 students.

3.15 The young population of Germany has increased in recent years: about 9 million were age 6 to 18 in 1991, rising to about 11 million in 1994. However, the Federal government appears to be forecasting a decline in the 3 to 26 age group up to the year 2030 (from a high of over 21 million in 1995 to a low of 15 million in 2030) in part due to dramatically falling birth rates in the eastern Lander. It also appears to be forecasting increasing numbers in higher education at least until the year 2010.

3.16 The constitution has given those with the entrance qualification the right to enrol, but this has not been funded in full by the government. This means that, given the predominant mode of instruction, students need to be particularly motivated and able to survive (as well as reasonably well supported by parents or employment). Selection for higher education seems on the whole to happen after enrolment rather than before, with the exception of some subjects where restrictions on numbers apply.

3.17 The numbers of students enrolled significantly exceeds the number of planned places, leading to overcrowding of lectures (which appears then to act as a filter or rationing device). At present the strain on facilities is such that there are two students to every one place in higher education. Some institutions are very large (50,000 students in some universities); others are quite small (2,000 in some Fachhochschulen).

3.18 Drop out is high. The reasons given by students for abandoning studies are shown in Table 3.1.

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