Our research themes

Children sitting around a table talking to their teachers.

Working across four key themes, our team lead a range of projects exploring how inequalities can be reduced through education. Our outputs include peer-reviewed articles, policy- and public-facing reports, and methodological papers.

Theme one – Early identification and assessment of needs

We develop approaches and tools to identify children who need support, ensuring assessment is fair, inclusive, and accessible across diverse populations. Early, accurate identification ensures all children receive timely support, regardless of language background or socioeconomic status. This prevents small gaps from widening into entrenched inequalities. Our research includes:

Early identification of language disorder risk in bilingual children

De Cat, C., Tuller, L., Gusnanto, A., Kašćelan, D., Prévost, P., Serratrice, L., & Unsworth, S. (2026). Using Q-BEx to Identify Risk for Language Impairment in Bilingual Children (DOI). Available as an accepted-version preprint.
Snowling, M. J., Hayiou-Thomas, M. E., Nash, H. M., & Hulme, C. (2020). Dyslexia and developmental language disorder: Comorbid disorders with distinct effects on reading comprehension.
Snowling, M. J., Nash, H. M., Gooch, D. C., Hayiou-Thomas, M. E., Hulme, C., & Wellcome Language and Reading Project Team. (2019). Developmental outcomes for children at high risk of dyslexia and children with developmental language disorder.
Waterman, A. H., Bennett, H., Gathercole, S. E., & Allen, R. J. (2026). The Working Memory Classroom Screener: Identifying Children with Working Memory Difficulties.

Creating inclusive, fair, and accessible reading assessment methodologies from early years through to adolescence

Dixon, C., Oxley, E., Gellert, A. S., & Nash, H. (2023). Dynamic assessment as a predictor of reading development: A systematic review. Reading and Writing, 36, 673-698.
Dixon, C., Oxley, E., Nash, H., & Gellert, A. S. (2022). Does dynamic assessment offer an alternative approach to identifying reading disorder? A systematic review. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 56(6), 423-439.
Nash, H., Dixon, C., Clarke, P., Oxley, E., Gellert, A. S., & Weighall, A. (2025). Dynamic assessment of word learning as a predictor of vocabulary, reading comprehension and risk status for the poor comprehender reading profile. Reading and Writing, 38, 2633-2659.
Nash, H., Dixon, C., Clarke, P., et al. (In press, 2026). Predicting Reading Outcomes in School Starters Using a Computer Assisted Dynamic Assessment of Decoding. Reading and Writing.

Understanding how adverse experiences and disadvantage affect development and educational outcomes

Cusworth, L., Tracey, L., Baldwin, H., & Biehal, N. (2021). Home or care? A comparison of educational outcomes for maltreated children. British Journal of Social Work, 51, 3055–3076.
Davies, C., & La Valle, I. (2025). Little Lives, Big Changes: How COVID-19 Shaped Early Years Services and Children’s Development from Birth to Five Years. Expert report INQ000587957. London: UK COVID-19 Public Inquiry.
De Cat, C. (2021). Socio-economic status as a proxy for input quality in bilingual children? Applied Psycholinguistics, 42(2), 301–324.
Fox, L., Bowyer-Crane, C., Lambrechts, A. A., Manzoni, C., Nielsen, D., & Tracey, L. (2021). Mitigating the Impacts of COVID-19 in the Early Years: A Rapid Review. York: University of York.
Hendry, A., Gibson, S. P., Davies, C., Gliga, T., McGillion, M., & Gonzalez-Gomez, N. (2022). Not all babies are in the same boat: Exploring how socioeconomic status, parental attitudes, and activities during UK COVID-19 lockdown affect early executive functions. Infancy, 27, 555–581.
Mooney, K., Cheung, R., Blower, S., Allen, R. J., & Waterman, A. H. (2024). Are social inequalities in children’s educational attainment mediated by executive functions and processing speed?. BMC Psychology, 12, 746.
Mooney, K. E., Pickett, K. E., Shire, K., Allen, R. J., & Waterman, A. H. (2022). Socioeconomic disadvantage and ethnicity are associated with large differences in children’s working memory ability: Analysis of a prospective birth cohort study following 13,500 children. BMC Psychology, 10, 67.
Nash, H., Clarke, P., Davies, C., Hart, P., Homer, M., & Mathieson, R. (2022). Educating Children Through Reception and Year 1 During COVID-19 School Disruption. Leeds: University of Leeds.
Nash, H., Clarke, P., Davies, C., Hart, P., Homer, M., & Mathieson, R. (2022). Progress of Children Through Reception and Year 1 During COVID-19 School Disruption. Leeds: University of Leeds.
Tracey, L., Bowyer-Crane, C., Bonetti, S., Nielsen, D., D’Apice, K., & Compton, S. (2022). The Impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic on Children’s Socio-emotional Wellbeing and Attainment During the Reception Year. London: Education Endowment Foundation.
Waterman, A. H., & Shire, K. (2020). The Impact of COVID-19 on Learning and Wellbeing. Bradford: Centre for Applied Education Research.
Zuniga-Montanez, C., Davies, C., Ligoxygakis, L., Kašćelan, D., & Gonzalez-Gomez, N. (2024). Annual Research Review: How Did COVID-19 Affect Young Children’s Language Environment and Language Development? A Scoping Review. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 66, 569–587. See also: Chalmers (2025) commentary on the review.

Theme two – Language-rich environments and literacy development

Our research improves the understanding of effective language and literacy environments across home, early years settings, and schools, particularly for children facing disadvantage. Language development is foundational to educational success. Understanding what characterises rich language environments is crucial for closing attainment gaps, especially during periods of disruption or for families facing disadvantage.

Our research includes:

What enriches language environments, and how early years settings, libraries, and educational resources can help

Davies, C., Hendry, A., Gibson, S. P., Gliga, T., McGillion, M., & Gonzalez-Gomez, N. (2021). Early childhood education and care (ECEC) during COVID-19 boosts growth in language and executive function . Infant and Child Development, 30(4), e2241.
Davies, C., Kong, S. P., Hendry, A., Archer, N., McGillion, M., & Gonzalez-Gomez, N. (2023). Sustained benefits of early childhood education and care (ECEC) for young children’s development during COVID-19 . Journal of Early Childhood Research, 22(2), 238–257.
De Cat, C. (2021). Socio-economic status as a proxy for input quality in bilingual children? . Applied Psycholinguistics, 42(2), 301–324.
Grainger, K., Nash, H., Clarke, P., & Ingle-Teare, R. (ongoing). Reception Book Buddies: developing and evaluating a community based intervention to promote shared book reading and library use at the transition into primary school . PhD project, University of Leeds.
Taylor, L., & Clarke, P. (2025). “We're very book rich”: The impact of school library services on reading, resourcing and reducing inequality . Literacy, 59, 283–292.
Taylor, L., & Clarke, P. (2023). Books, Bags and Boxes: A study of the role and impact of the Leeds School Library Service . Report, University of Leeds.
Twine, E., & Davies, C. (2022). Evaluating the impact of the Leeds Story Buses on children’s reading experiences: Data and recommendations . Report, University of Leeds.
Unsworth, S., Gusnanto, A., Kašćelan, D., Prévost, P., Serratrice, L., Tuller, L., & De Cat, C. (2025). Unpacking language richness as a predictor of bilingual children’s language proficiency . Journal of Child Language.

Supporting early monolingual and multilingual language development

De Cat, C., Gusnanto, A., Serratrice, L., Prévost, P., Tuller, L., & Unsworth, S. (2026). A data-driven approach to the issue of “catching up with monolinguals”. Accepted for publication in International Journal of Language & Communication Disorders, 61(6), e70330.
Dysart, E., & Tracey, L. Pilot study of Plan, Do, Review. Research project funded by the Education Endowment Foundation.
Subosa, M., Oades, F., Dysart, E., Tracey, L., & Speciani, E. R. (2025). Concept Cat: A two-armed cluster randomised controlled trial. Evaluation report. London: Education Endowment Foundation.
Tracey, L., Code, A., Dysart, E., Coleman, I., Torgerson, C., & Bowyer-Crane, C. (2025). Communication Friendly Home-Based Settings (CFHBS). Pilot evaluation report. London: Education Endowment Foundation.

How oral language underpins vocabulary, reading, and literacy development

Davies, C., Syrett, K., Taylor, L., Wilkes, S., & Zuniga-Montanez, C. (2022). Supporting adjective learning in 5–7 year olds across curriculum areas: Insights from psychological research . Language and Linguistics Compass, e12476.
Nash, H., Dixon, C., Clarke, P., Oxley, E., Gellert, A. S., & Weighall, A. (2025). Dynamic assessment of word learning as a predictor of vocabulary, reading comprehension and risk status for the poor comprehender reading profile . Reading and Writing, 38, 2633–2659.
Nash, H. M., Davies, R., & Ricketts, J. (2023). The contributions of decoding skill and lexical knowledge to the development of irregular word reading . Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 49(1), 78–97.
Subosa, M., Oades, F., Dysart, E., Tracey, L., & Speciani, E. R. (2025). Concept Cat: A two-armed cluster randomised controlled trial . Evaluation report. London: Education Endowment Foundation.
Taylor, L., & Clarke, P. (2021). We read, we write: Reconsidering reading–writing relationships in primary school children . Literacy, 55, 14–24.

Theme three – Evidence-based classroom practice and support

We translate cognitive and developmental science into practical classroom strategies and pedagogies that work for all children. Evidence-based educational practices that account for developmental differences ensure that all children, including those with specific needs or from disadvantaged backgrounds, can access learning effectively.

Our research includes:

How research on memory and learning can shape everyday teaching

Atkinson, A. L., Allen, R. J., & Waterman, A. H. (2021). Exploring the understanding and experience of working memory in teaching professionals: A large-sample questionnaire study . Teaching and Teacher Education, 103, 103343.
Atkinson, A. L., Waterman, A. H., & Allen, R. J. (2019). Can children prioritize more valuable information in working memory? An exploration into the effects of motivation and memory load . Developmental Psychology, 55(5), 967–980.
Berry, E. D. J., Allen, R. A., Mon-Williams, M., & Waterman, A. H. (2019). Cognitive offloading: Structuring the environment to improve children’s working memory task performance . Cognitive Science, 43(8), e12770.
Chen, O., Waterman, A. H., Allen, R. J., & Sweller, J. (2026). The relationship between cognitive offloading and the transient information effect . Educational Psychology Review.
Waterman, A. H., & Miller, M. (2022). Working Memory: Research into Practice . Report, Bradford Research School.

Teaching approaches that develop language through exploration and discussion

Hart, P., & Clarke, P. Connecting and comprehending through play . Research project funded by GamesInLab.

Intervention approaches to help children engage with text and build literacy skills

Mesa, C., Newbury, D. F., Nash, M., Clarke, P., Esposito, R., Elliott, L., & De Barbieri, Z. (2020). The effects of reading and language intervention on literacy skills in children in a remote community: An exploratory randomized controlled trial . International Journal of Educational Research, 100, 101535.
Tracey, L., Chambers, B., Slavin, R., Hanley, P., & Cheung, A. (2014). Success for All in England: Results from the third year of a national evaluation . SAGE Open, 4(3), 1–10.
Tracey, L., Dysart, E., & Clarke, P. Writing Roots evaluation . Research project funded by the Education Endowment Foundation.
Tracey, L., Elliott, L., Fairhurst, C., Mandefield, L., Fountain, I., & Ellison, S. (2022). Lexia Reading Core5 . Evaluation report. London: Education Endowment Foundation.

Evidence-based classroom approaches to the core curriculum in primary and secondary education

Pike, M. A., Hart, P., Paul, S. A. S., Lickona, T., & Clarke, P. (2021). Character development through the curriculum: Teaching and assessing the understanding and practice of virtue . Journal of Curriculum Studies, 53(4), 449–466.
Tracey, L., Boehnke, J. R., Elliott, L., Thorley, K., Ellison, S., & Bowyer-Crane, C. A. (2019). Grammar for Writing: Evaluation report and executive summary . Evaluation report. London: Education Endowment Foundation.
Tracey, L., Chambers, B., Slavin, R., Hanley, P., & Cheung, A. (2014). Success for All in England: Results from the third year of a national evaluation . SAGE Open, 4(3), 1–10.
Tracey, L., Elliott, L., Fairhurst, C., Mandefield, L., Fountain, I., & Ellison, S. (2022). Lexia Reading Core5 . Evaluation report. London: Education Endowment Foundation.
Tracey, L., Madden, N. A., & Slavin, R. E. (2010). Effects of co-operative learning on the mathematics achievement of Years 4 and 5 pupils in Britain: A randomised control trial . Effective Education, 2(1), 85–97.

Theme four – Systems change: intervention evaluation and workforce development

We collaborate to strengthen the education system through rigorous evaluation and professional development, ensuring that effective practices are sustained and scaled.

Even the best interventions fail without effective implementation. By understanding how to improve practice, recognising practitioners who deliver it, and evaluating what works, we ensure that research evidence translates into sustained improvements for all children. Research includes:

Helping caregivers to support their children's socioemotional and academic development

Grainger, K., Nash, H., Clarke, P., & Ingle-Teare, R. (ongoing). Reception Book Buddies: developing and evaluating a community based intervention to promote shared book reading and library use at the transition into primary school . PhD project, University of Leeds.
Paul, S. A. S., Hart, P., Augustin, L., Clarke, P. J., & Pike, M. A. (2022). Parents’ perspectives on home-based character education activities . Journal of Family Studies, 28(3), 1158–1180.
Tracey, L., Chambers, B., Bywater, T. J., & Elliott, L. (2016). SPOKES (Supporting Parents on Kids Education in School): Evaluation report and executive summary . Report. London: Education Endowment Foundation.
Tracey, L., Torgerson, C., Dysart, E., Fairhurst, C., Gridley, N., & Welch, C. (2022). Efficacy trial of the ParentChild+ programme . Evaluation report. London: Education Endowment Foundation.

Working with third sector organisations to evaluate promising approaches to inform policy and practice

Dysart, E., & Tracey, L. Efficacy Trial of Peer-to-Peer Coaching . Research project funded by the Education Endowment Foundation.
Leston-Bandeira, C., Clarke, P., & Shepherd, A. Enhancing Parliamentary Evaluation of Democratic Engagement Programmes . Research project funded by the Research England Policy Support Fund.
Nielsen, D., D’Apice, K., Cheung, R., Bryant, M., Heald, R., Storr, C., et al. (2023). A randomised controlled feasibility trial of an early years language development intervention: Results of the outcomes of Talking Together evaluation and results (oTTer) project . Pilot and Feasibility Studies, 9, 107.
Tracey, L., Dysart, E., & Clarke, P. Writing Roots evaluation . Research project funded by the Education Endowment Foundation.
Tracey, L., Elliott, L., Fairhurst, C., Mandefield, L., Fountain, I., & Ellison, S. (2022). Lexia Reading Core5 . Evaluation report. London: Education Endowment Foundation.
Tracey, L., Madden, N. A., & Slavin, R. E. (2010). Effects of co-operative learning on the mathematics achievement of Years 4 and 5 pupils in Britain: A randomised control trial . Effective Education, 2(1), 85–97.

How professional development can support early years practitioners

Dysart, E., & Tracey, L. Efficacy Trial of Peer-to-Peer Coaching . Research project funded by the Education Endowment Foundation.
Subosa, M., Oades, F., Dysart, E., Tracey, L., & Speciani, E. R. (2025). Concept Cat: A two-armed cluster randomised controlled trial . Evaluation report. London: Education Endowment Foundation.
Tracey, L., Code, A., Dysart, E., Coleman, I., Torgerson, C., & Bowyer-Crane, C. (2025). Communication Friendly Home-Based Settings (CFHBS) . Pilot evaluation report. London: Education Endowment Foundation.